Australian Ethnography 澳大利亞民族志

Chapter 5 Religion and Worship¹The chapter “Religion and Worship,” corresponding to pages 47-53 of the original text, is the fifth chapter from Part I: “Indigenous History and Present Situation” of Australian Ethnography. This chapter provides an exhaustive analysis of the religious practices and spiritual beliefs of the indigenous populations in Australia, focusing on their spiritual traditions and the societal implications of these practices. —Trans.

In the Indigenous communities, everything is linked to religion. Strictly speaking, indigenous religions are still in a primitive stage, i.e. a variety of unstructured worship rituals. They believe in the Dreamtime²Dreamtime or Dreaming (夢幻時代) was term used for religio-cultural concepts attributed to Australian Aboriginal cultures. The words were first used by Francis Gillen and quickly adopted by other anthropologists in Australia. (See: Christine Judith Nicholls, “‘Dreamtime’ and ‘the Dreaming’ – an Introduction,” The Conversation, January 22, 2014, https://theconversation.com/dreamtime-and-the-dreaming-an-introduction-20833.) —Trans., i.e. the era of Creation. It is said that on the land of Australia there only lived ancestors of the Aborigines and evil spirits, who were characterized by both human and animal. They created lands, rivers, mountains, caves and special rocks with supernatural power wherever they went. The First Nations live on the lands created by their ancestors and they follow the unusual laws, customs and social organizations laid down by their ancestors. Indigenous religions thus came into being at that time. As mentioned by Engels, “Religion arose in very primitive times from men’s erroneous and primitive conceptions about their nature and the external nature surrounding them.”³① Selected Works of Marx and Engels vol. 4, 250. The quote was written by Engles and used by the author of the book, Ruan Xihu. Its English translation can be found in the translation of Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy published by Foreign Languages Press. (See: Friedrich Engels, Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1976), 55.)https://michaelharrison.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Ludwig-Fuuerbach-and-the-end-of-Classical-German-Philiosophy-FLP.pdf.  ) —Trans.

土著社會的各個方面都與宗教聯繫着。嚴格說來，土著宗教還處在原始階段，即鬆散的各種崇拜儀式。他們相信夢幻年代，即創世紀年代。據說當時在澳大利亞只居住着土著居民的祖先和兇惡的精靈，他們的祖先既象人又象動物。在他們漫遊過的地方利用超人的自然力量創造了大地、河流、山脈、山洞和特殊的岩石。最早的土著人就在他們祖先創造的大地上生活，並按他們祖先所制定的特別法律、習慣和社會組織生活。這就是土著人宗教信仰的開始，正如恩格斯指出的：“宗教是在最原始的時代從人們關於自己本身的自然和周圍的外部自然的錯誤的、最原始的觀念中產生的。” ①

①  《馬克思恩格斯選集》第四卷, 第250頁。

Despite the primitive stage of their religious beliefs, the indigenous people have complex religious rituals. In the entire Australian continent, including the surrounding islands, the religious rituals vary greatly, with respective worship rituals. Different social organizations can be found in these indigenous societies, and they intertwine with each other closely, which facilitates the spread of various worship rituals. Based on the ritual content, they can be summarized into three aspects, namely the “Harvest and Fertility” worship, totem worship and magic and Clevermen⁴A Cleverman refers to a traditional healer in the cultures of the First Nations in Australia. The roles, terms for and abilities of the Clevermen vary in different communities. Some of them can heal physical injuries and some can cure spiritual ailments with magic powering from the Dreaming. They can be men or women depending on the cultures of different communities. (See: Daniel Suggit, “A Clever People: Indigenous healing traditions and Australian mental health futures” (Short Thesis, ANU, 2008), 3-5, https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/12051/1/Suggit_D_2008.pdf ) —Trans..

土著居民的宗教信仰雖然還停在原始階段，宗教儀式卻很複雜，整個澳大利亞大陸，包括周圍各島嶼，土著居民的宗教儀式不盡相同，他們有各種不同的崇拜儀式。土著社會存在着不同的社會組織，而且各種不同的社會組織交織在一起。這種情況有利於各種崇拜儀式的傳播。但按其內容可以歸納為三個方面，即“豐收與繁生”崇拜、圖騰崇拜和巫術巫醫。

I. The Harvest and Fertility worship

The “Harvest and Fertility” worship represents a primitive form of religion among the Australian aborigines. Other similar forms include the “Whale Hunting” worship of the Inuit in Alaska and the “Sun” worship in Africa and the Americas.

一  “豐收與繁生”崇拜

“豐收與繁生”崇拜是澳大利亞土著人的一種原始宗教形式，類似這種崇拜形式還有阿拉斯加因紐特人的“獵鯨崇拜”以及非洲和美洲等地的“太陽”崇拜，等等。

Throughout Australia, the “Harvest and Fertility” worship is one of the few most widespread forms. It spreads in the north-central regions and northwest regions of Australia, covering the Roper River region, including Arnhem Land⁵Arnhem Land (阿納姆地): A region of Australia in the northern territory, large areas of which are reserved for native Australians. (See: D. M. J. S. Bowman, Angie Walsh, and L. D. Prior, “Landscape Analysis of Aboriginal Fire Management in Central Arnhem Land, North Australia,” Journal of Biogeography 31, no. 2 (February 2004): 207–23, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0305-0270.2003.00997.x.) —Trans., Port Essington⁶Port Essington (基特斯港): This article provides some information about this place in the north-central and northwest Australia, and Port Essington which is located in the north Australia, is the best suitable place and around this place there are a lot of First Nations and it’s near the Daly River. (See: Baldwin Spencer, Native Tribes of the Northern Territory of Australia (Cambridge University Press, 1914), 7.) —Trans., Daly River, Victoria River and the Kimberley region. Despite differences in mythology and ritual in these regions, they have one thing in common, that is, the common content of harvest and fertility. There are other forms of worship based on “harvest and fertility”, like the desert-style form and different worship rituals in the west, as well as eastern forms of worship in the Yeddung Dhaura⁷Yeddung Dhaura (雲杜魯): This paper describes the place Yeddung Dhaura that is an Aboriginal campsite located on a flat‐topped rise on the eastern edge of a tributary stream of Ginninderra Creek. And it is an Aboriginal community. And its pronunciation is closest to its transliterated name. (See: “Background Information Yeddung Dhaura (Block 1 Section 111 Forde),” Trove (Canberra City, Australian Capital Territory: ACT Government, Published September 2021), https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-2995362361/view.) —Trans. and Aranda regions, spreading in the southeast. Each worship ritual in the desert region presents its own characteristics and mysterious colours. During my visits to Yeddung Dhaura and Western Australia, I heard a lot about the different worship rituals of the Aborigines. They link production to all kinds of natural objects, thus turning many natural objects into the goals of their worship.

從整個澳大利亞來講，“豐收與繁生”崇拜是流傳最廣的少數幾種崇拜形式之一。它流傳於澳大利亞的中北部地區和西北部地區，從羅泊河地區，包括阿納姆地、基特斯港、戴利河、維多利亞河以及金伯利地區。儘管在神話和儀式方面有所不同，但都反映豐收與繁生這個共同的內容。以豐收與繁生為內容的崇拜，還有沙漠形式的崇拜和西部地區的不同崇拜儀式，東部崇拜形式包括雲杜魯和阿蘭達地區，併流傳在東南部地區。沙漠地區的每一種崇拜儀式都有其本身的特點和神秘色彩。我在訪問雲杜魯和西澳大利亞時就聽到許多關於土著居民的各種不同崇拜儀式。他們把生產與各種自然物聯繫起來。因此，許多自然物也就成為他們的崇拜對象了。

According to the report of J. C. Wisnell (威斯乃爾) 1901⁸The author of the book, Ruan Xihu translated the name as 威斯乃爾. In this translation process, failed to locate the report mentioned in the book under the name 威斯乃爾, taking Wisnell as the corresponding name of 威斯乃爾. —Trans., there is a place called Telfer⁹Telfer (塔爾勞): Failed to locate a place called “塔爾勞.” The author said the place is in Pilbara, so after searching all the places in Pilbara, still nothing. However, there is a place called Telfer that is located in the Pilbara, and it is also the Aboriginal community. —Trans. in the Pilbara region, where a pile of stones separates sacred places. This is exactly a place for Harvest and Fertility. Another similar site in Australia is Wickham¹⁰Wickham (威克姆坎): “Wickham” is a real name and a well-known Aboriginal community, and its pronunciation is much similar to its transliterated name “威克姆坎.” —Trans., which is also a site for harvest rituals. Spencer and Gillen have reported on the Arandas’ intichiuma¹¹The name Intichiuma is applied to certain sacred ceremonies associated with the totems, and the object of which is to secure the increase of the animal or plant which gives its name to the totem. (See: Baldwin Spencer and Francis James Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia (Cambridge University Press, 1898), 167–211.)  —Trans., i.e. the “Harvest or Fertility” worship. Their report gives us reason to believe that the “intichiuma” worship is the most primitive worship ritual of Australians and is also common to many primitive peoples.

根據J· C· 威斯乃爾在1901年的報告，在皮巴拉區有一個叫塔爾勞的地方，這裡有一堆石頭把聖地隔開，這是一個為豐收和繁生舉行儀式的場所。類似這樣的場所在澳大利亞還有威克姆坎，它也是一個為豐收而舉行儀式的場所。斯賓塞和吉倫曾對阿蘭達人的印泰柴尤馬(intichiuma), 即 “豐收或繁生” 崇拜作了報道。他們的報告使我們有理由相信，“豐收與繁生”崇拜是澳大利亞人的最原始的崇拜儀式，也是許多原始民族共同的崇拜儀式。

However, situations vary in different parts of Australia. People don’t hold worship rituals for all animals or plants, and there are not always worship centres for all important species. Moreover, not everyone who attends worship rituals sincerely believes in them, since even aborigines themselves also sometimes hold worship rituals for those economically useless species. They tend to do so for the species involved with their survival.

但是，在澳大利亞各個不同地區，情況也不盡相同，不是對所有的動物或植物都有崇拜儀式，也不是所有的重要物種都有崇拜中心，更不是所有參加崇拜儀式的人都真誠相信。因為土著人有時也對那些在經濟上無用的物種舉行崇拜儀式。但通常是為對他們生存有關的物種舉行崇拜儀式。

The Arandas¹²The Arandas can be also known as the Arrernte people or  Arunta, which are a group of Aboriginal Australian peoples who live in the Arrernte lands, and surrounding areas of the Central Australia region of the Northern Territory. —Trans. hold an annual “Harvest and Fertility” ritual because of their flourished plants. According to Spencer and Gillen¹³Baldwin Spencer and F· J· Gillen were pioneering anthropologists who explored the link between ecological resources and totemic rituals among the Aranda. Their significant work, “The Native Tribes of Central Australia,” provides an in-depth examination of indigenous societies and cultures in central Australia, documenting their religious practices and beliefs and how these are intertwined with environmental and biological cycles. —Trans., Arandas’ “intichiuma” is closely related to the plant growth and animal reproduction of the corresponding totems. Therefore, some people believe that the “intichiuma worship” comes into being also for the harvest and multiplication of animal and plant totems, which thus links the worship of  “Harvest and Fertility” with the worship of totems. From where I stand, the worship of “Harvest and Fertility” and the one of totem are two different religious rituals, since the former generally means to enjoy flourishing plants and hunted animals, while the latter indicates abstinence from fasting and forbidden touching. This is an important distinction.

阿蘭達人在當他們的植物生長茂盛的時候，每年舉行一次“豐收與繁生”儀式，斯賓塞和吉倫認為，阿蘭達人的“印泰柴尤馬崇拜”與相應圖騰的植物茂盛成長和動物繁殖密切聯繫着。有人根據斯賓塞和吉倫的觀點，認為“印泰柴尤馬崇拜”也是為動物圖騰和植物圖騰的豐收和繁生而崇拜。這就把“豐收與繁生”崇拜與圖騰崇拜聯繫起來了。我認為“豐收與繁生”崇拜和圖騰崇拜是兩種不同的宗教儀式。因為圖騰物種一般為禁食、禁觸，而“豐收與繁生”崇拜食用生長茂盛的植物和獵獲的動物。這是重要的區別。

The worship of “Harvest and Fertility” in northeast Arnhem Land can well explain the connotation of this religious ritual. Whenever the seasonal wind and rainy season arrive, the Aborigines will hold the “Harvest and Fertility” worship, praying for a good harvest and more food. In addition, stories of two Djankawu Sisters¹⁴Djankawu Sisters: The Djankawu Sisters are mythological creators and fertility figures in the mythology of Indigenous Australian peoples from the Arnhem Land region, responsible for the creation of many sites and life forms. (See: Edward Palmer, “Notes on Some Australian Tribes,” The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 13 (1884): 291, https://doi.org/10.2307/2841896.) —Trans. and their brother are famous in the Dhuwa moiety¹⁵The Dhuwa(also spelled Dua), one of two major moieties in Yolngu societies of Arnhem Land, Northern Australia. This social structure consists of a complex dualistic system, in which Australian Aboriginal communities are typically divided into two complementary “friction” or groups, Dhuwa and Yirritja. Key clans within the Dhuwa moiety, such as the Rirratjiŋu and Gälpu from the Dangu people, contrast with the Gumatj clan, which stands as the most notable in the Yirritja moiety. —Trans.. They are heroes in mythologies and symbols of the sun, who help humans, animals, and plants grow. The aborigines worship them precisely for the growth of plants and animals.

從阿納姆地東北部的“豐收與繁生”崇拜就能更清楚地了解這宗教儀式的內涵。每當季節風和雨季到來時，當地土著人舉行了“豐收與繁生”崇拜，祈求物種豐收，得到更多食物。此外，在杜爾氏族中，流傳着兩個德詹格加伍爾姐妹和一個哥哥的故事。他們是神話中的英雄，太陽的象徵，並使人類、動物、植物生長。土著人崇拜他們正是為了動植物生長。

The above examples focus on the abundance of species, while the following give attention to the abundance of people. Kunapipi¹⁶Kunapipi also spelt Gunabibi, (womb) is a fertility goddess in Indigenous Australian cultures, symbolizing fertility and creativity, prevalent in the mythologies of many Aboriginal communities. —Trans., a mythical mother who creates man, is regarded as a spirit associated with the Rainbow Serpent¹⁷The Rainbow Serpent, a deity in Aboriginal Australian mythology, represents the interconnectedness of water, life, and creation. Known by various names and central in The Dreaming, it features prominently in Aboriginal art and religion. The Rainbow Serpent creates land, water and all other animals, plants for the Aboriginal peoples, yet sometimes when they are disturbed may create chaos and troubles. (See: Anthony S Mercatante and James R Dow, “Rainbow Snake,” The Facts on File Encyclopedia of World Mythology and Legend, (New York: Facts On File, 2009), 817-818.) —Trans.. People endow her with many names, two of which are Galwadi and Djang’kawu¹⁸The Djang’kawu(also spelled Djanggawul or Djan’kawu), refers to the creation ancestors in the mythology of the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory of Australia. It is one of the most important stories in Aboriginal Australian mythology and concerns the moiety known as Dhuwa. —Trans.. The Aborigines also worship the two sisters who live in the cave and are said to have been swallowed by a venomous python. The two sisters come back into the caves of Alungol later for multiplication.

上述例子着重為物種豐收，下面的例子着重為人丁興旺，如庫納皮皮是一位神話式的繁生母親，她創造了人。因此，她被看成與蛇虹有聯繫的精靈。她有許多名字，其中兩個名字是加爾瓦迪和加德賈里。土著人還崇拜兩位在岩洞里繁生的姐妹。據說這兩個姐妹被無毒大蟒吞沒，爾後又把她們放回到亞盧恩格古爾的岩洞里繁生。

In Western Arnhem, there is a festival similar to the worship of “Harvest and Fertility”, called “ubar”¹⁹Ubar is a specific ritual observed in certain parts of Arnhem Land, celebrating fertility and the cyclical nature of life, linked to maternal aspects of creation. —Trans.. It has to do with the mother’s multiplication. The mother is known as Waramurunggo²⁰Wollunqua, the Warumungu people’s version of the Rainbow Serpent, is a creator in many Aboriginal myths. —Trans.. She shares her name with the Ngalyod, the Rainbow Serpent²¹Ngalyod, the Rainbow Serpent is an all-powerful female ancestral creator of the Bininj people. Ngalyod represents a specific form of the Rainbow Serpent, depicted as female and symbolizing forces of creation and destruction. —Trans.. The “ubar” ritual involves a series of dances. When people dance, there is an empty and concave wooden drum, and the sound of the drum symbolizes the voice of the mother.

在西阿納姆地，有與“豐收與繁生”崇拜相似的節日，稱“尤巴爾”(ubar)。它與母親的繁生有關。這位母親被稱為瓦拉穆蘭戈(Waramurunggo)。她與女蛇虹恩加爾佐德齊名。“尤巴爾”儀式包括一系列舞蹈。人們在跳舞時，有一個內空而呈凹狀的木鼓，鼓聲就象徵著母親的聲音。

II. Totem Worship

Totems were first found in the cultures of the North American Indians. The word “totem” comes from the Ojibwe²²Ojibwe (奧吉布瓦語), also known as Ojibwa, Ojibway, Otchipwe, Ojibwemowin, or Anishinaabemowin, is an indigenous language of North America of the Algonquian language family. The language is characterized by a series of dialects that have local names and frequently local writing systems. (See: Michael D Palmer and Stanley M Burgess, Companion to Religion and Social Justice. (Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), 425–37.) —Trans. language which means an object linked with the destiny of an individual or a group and protects them. Thus, totem worship became part of the original religion. In Australia, when most scholars use totemism, it’s a way to explain worship activities or group attributes as well as to use the term to symbolize similar objects in nature. Most importantly, these scholars use the totems to reflect the relationship between indigenous people and nature, as well as their fantasies about other things in the universe. It has something in common with the Ojibwe word for “totem”.

二 圖騰崇拜

圖騰最早在北美印第安人中發現。圖騰一詞來自奧吉布瓦語，意為個人或集體的命運與之相連繫之物，並能保護他們。因此，圖騰崇拜也就成了原始宗教的一部分。在澳大利亞，大部分學者，當他們在使用圖騰主義一詞時，是把它作為一種手段來解釋崇拜活動，或集團的屬性的，並用圖騰一詞來象徵自然界的一些相似物體。最重要的是這些學者用圖騰方法來反映土著人與自然界的關係，以及他們對這個宇宙中其他事物的幻想。這種用法與奧吉布瓦語“圖騰”一詞的涵義有相同之處。

Meanwhile, the Australian ethnographic community hold different opinions on the term totemism in Aboriginal religion, arguing that the term does not accurately reflect the religious beliefs of Aborigines. However, others consider the use of the term totem is inappropriate to describe their religious culture. From where I stand, the aborigines in the clan stage show their religious belief mainly in the form of worship. Thus, totemism counts as an integral part of the religion of the aboriginal Australians. Nevertheless, it is not “the main form of the unique religion of the Australians” as proposed by the Soviet scholars, since the religion of the Aborigines is a mixture of many kinds of worship that includes three parts, even animatism²³Animatism (泛生信仰, also can be translated as萬物有靈論) is a form of religion in most of primitive or preliterate societies, which speaks about a belief in generalized, objective power over which actions of control can be imposed by the people. (See: Kasi Eswarappa and Gladis S. Mathew, “Animatism,” Springer- Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion, January 1, 2019, 2, https://www.academia.edu/40366015/Animatism.) —Trans.. The content in this chapter is only one component of the complex worship.

與此同時，在澳大利亞民族學界，對在土著人的宗教中使用圖騰主義一詞存在着不同看法，認為使用圖騰一詞沒有準確地反映土著居民的宗教信仰。也有人認為使用圖騰一詞不恰當。但我認為，處於氏族階段的土著人，他們的宗教信仰主要表現在崇拜上。因此，圖騰崇拜縣澳大利亞土著人宗教信仰的一個組成部分，但不是象蘇聯學者所說的那樣，“圖騰崇拜是澳大利亞人的獨特宗教的主要形式”，因為土著人的宗教是一個多種崇拜混合體，它包括三部分，甚至泛生信仰(animatism)。本節所介紹的，只是多種崇拜混合體的一個組成部分。

i. Personal Totem Worship

Personal totem worship refers to the relationship between an individual and a particular animal or plant in nature. The relationship is personal and usually does not share a totem with another person, nor is it hereditary. A person may be given a totem name at the Initiation ceremony²⁴The Initiation ceremony is a special ritual held for young male Aboriginal adolescents when they are at the age of 10-16. The ceremony symbolizes them becoming adult parts of the community and allows them to comprehend the mythology in the Dreamtime, as well as to share the embodiment of the ancestors. (See: Mbantua Gallery, “Aboriginal Culture and Ceremonies,” Mbantua.com.au, 2024, https://mbantua.com.au/aboriginal-culture. ) —Trans.. The name may be a plant, animal, insect, or mineral name, and sometimes the meaning of the totem name is hidden. After a person is given a totem, the person has to make it known to the whole clan. However, the person does not always feel any love for the totem object or be emotionally bound to it. The person does not need to have a special attitude towards it and can still eat it. This is the case with the Jigalongs²⁵The Jigalong community (吉加龍人) lives in the Pilbara region of Western Australia, the population was 300 according to the ABS 2016 Census. (See: National Indigenous Australians Agency, “Jigalong,” Indigenous.gov.au, 2022, https://www.indigenous.gov.au/community/jigalong.) —Trans. of Western Australia.

(一) 個人圖騰崇拜

個人圖騰崇拜是指個人與自然界某一動物或植物之間的關係。這個關係是個人關係，通常不與別人共有一個圖騰，也不是世襲的。一個人可能在成年禮時給他一個圖騰名稱。這個圖騰名稱可能是植物、動物、昆蟲和礦物名稱，有時圖騰名稱的含義是隱匿的。一個人在得到圖騰之後，要讓全氏族知道。但是，他並不總感到對圖騰物有任何愛慕或在感情上受圖騰的束縛。他並不需要對他的圖騰物有特殊態度，他還可以吃圖騰物。澳大利亞西部的吉加龍人就是這樣。

Some individuals have two totems, such as the Wurundjeri²⁶The Wurundjeri people (烏拉德傑里人) are the Traditional Custodians of much of the metropolitan Melbourne region extending out in all directions. (See: Mandy Nicholson and Jones David, “Wurundjeri-al Narrm-u (Wurundjeri’s Melbourne) Aboriginal Living Heritage in Australia’s Urban Landscapes ,” in The Routledge Handbook on Historic Urban Landscapes in the Asia-Pacific, ed. Kapila D. Silva (New York: Routledge, 2019), https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429486470.) —Trans., whose second totem is called “assistant totem²⁷Assistant totem (輔助圖騰) is termed as “Bala” in Aboriginal culture and sung into the child’s body when the child finishes his Initiation ceremony to serve as a spiritual apprenticeship to the Cleverman, which is normally used to pass the “cleverness” to the next generations. The paper gives more details about assistant totems in Aboriginal cultures and corresponds to the description provided by Ruan Xihu. (See: R M Berndt, “Wuradjeri Magic and ‘Clever Men’,” Oceania 17, no. 4 (June 1, 1947): 333, https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1834-4461.1947.tb00157.x.) —Trans.”, which may be an animal or a human being. When a Cleverman takes a child of 10 or 12 years old away from the main camp in which the child lives and sings²⁸According to the paper published by Adolphus Peter Elkin 伊爾金, he stated that the “assistant totem” was sung to the children. However, Ruan Xihu translated it as “blow into the children’s body” (Literal translation) in the original book, Australian Ethnography. (See: A. P. Elkin, “The Secret Life of the Australian Aborigines,” Oceania 3, no. 2 (1932): 125, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40327402.) —Trans. the Cleverman’s assistant totem (called a Bala) into the child, it means that the totem or the “animal spirit²⁹The animal totems are believed to be animal spirits by different clans of indigenous people living across the world. They think that totem animals always stay with them for life both in the physical and spiritual world. (See: Manash Goswami, “Totemism and Tribes: A Study of the Concept and Practice” (Assistant Professor thesis, 2018), https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Manash-Goswami-2/publication/326655380_Totemism_and_Tribes_A_Study_of_the_Concept_and_Practice/links/5c09dcac299bf139c7446bd5/Totemism-and-Tribes-A-Study-of-the-Concept-and-Practice.pdf.) —Trans.” has entered the child’s body. According to Howitt³⁰Alfred William Howitt 霍威特, was an Australian anthropologist, explorer and naturalist. He was famous for being the leader of the Victorian Relief Expedition (See:W. E. H. Stanner, “Alfred William Howitt,” Australian Dictionary of Biography (Canberra: National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, 1972), https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/howitt-alfred-william-510.) —Trans. and Elkin³¹Adolphus Peter Elkin 伊爾金 was a clergyman and influential Australian anthropologist during the mid-twentieth century. (See: Tigger Wise, “Adolphus Peter Elkin (1891–1979),” Australian Dictionary of Biography (Canberra: National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, 1996), https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/elkin-adolphus-peter-10109.) —Trans., the assistant totem was so widespread that it was found throughout New South Wales. In central, northern and north-western Australia, the Clevermen had snake spirits. In mythology, the snake spirit is often associated with the Rainbow Serpent.

個別人有兩個圖騰，如烏拉德傑里人第二個圖騰有“輔助圖騰”之稱，這種“輔助圖騰”可能是動物，也可能是人。土著醫生把一個10歲或12歲的小孩，從他住的帳篷中帶走，並在他身上吹進醫生的輔助圖騰(稱巴拉)，這就意味着圖騰或“動物精靈”已進入他的身上。據霍威特和伊爾金的記載，這種輔助圖騰傳播很廣，幾乎整個新南威爾士都有。在澳大利亞中部、北部和西北部，土著醫生都有蛇的精靈。在神話中，蛇精靈經常與虹聯繫在一起。