History of Overseas Chinese in Australia 澳大利亞華僑華人史

History of Overseas Chinese in Australia

澳大利亞華僑華人史

Chapter 3 The Historical Context of White Australia Policy

第三節 白澳政策產生的歷史背景

The White Australia Policy was implemented in Australia for over a century, from when 1855 when Victoria became the first state to enact laws restricting Chinese immigration with the Chinese Immigration Act, until 1974 when the Federal Government officially announced the end of racially, ethnically, and nationality-based discriminatory immigration policies. While some Australian politicians were not willing to acknowledge the original aim of the White Australia policy or attempt to downplay its significance, impartial Australian historians and scholars openly recognize its indisputable historical reality in their writings.  

從1855年維多利亞第一個宣布實行排華法直至1974 年聯邦政府正式宣布實行無人種、膚色或國籍歧視的移民政策時止，澳大利亞實行白澳政策前後超過了一個世紀。儘管澳大利亞的一些政治家不肯承認這是白澳政策或者給它加上引號，但是，公正的澳大利亞歷史學家及其他學者在他們撰寫的著作中坦率地承認，無論如何白澳政策的存在是不可爭辯的歷史事實。

The formation of the White Australia policy underwent a historical progression. In the mid-19th century, its focus was predominately on targeting overseas Chinese individuals, and by the 1990s, it expanded to include immigrants from other Asian nations. The peak of the White Australia policy came with the enactment of the Dictation Test by the Federal Government in 1901, marking a significant advancement in the systematic and refinement exclusion of Chinese immigrants’ policy.

白澳政策的形成有一個歷史發展過程。19世紀中葉，它的打擊矛頭明顯地指向華僑，到90年代則已擴及到其他亞洲國家移民。1901年聯邦政府成立後通過的《語言測驗法》則是白澳政策的頂峰，它使排華政策越來越完善和系統化了。

Racist politicians and trade union leaders espousing racist views were among the first to spearhead the anti-Chinese movement. Initially, ranchers and merchants did not actively support Chinese exclusion since they relied on Chinese labour to make profits. However, as the gold mines depleted and the overseas Chinese switched to industrial and commercial sectors, conflicts arose between them. Then their stance shifted, and they turned to advocating for anti-Chinese movements.

最早掀起排華運動的是持種族主義觀點的政客、工會領袖等。牧場主和商人因經濟利益關係需僱傭華工，起初對排華並不積極。等到金礦枯竭，華僑轉去從事工商業活動，同他們的利益發生矛盾後，他們就轉變態度，加入了排華的隊伍。

Here are some main reasons for supporting the restriction, exclusion, and suppression targeted towards overseas Chinese and other ethnic minorities.

主張限制、排斥、打擊華僑以及有色民族的主要因素是:

1. Economic Reasons

The majority of Chinese immigrants in Australia were originally impoverished peasants and urban dwellers living in dire circumstances. Since they had no means to support their lives in China, they viewed Australia as a beacon of hope. With the relatively low living requirement and a strong work ethic, these Chinese immigrants were regarded as the most skilled and cost-effective labour force.

一、經濟原因 

絕大多數移居澳大利亞的華僑原是中國的破產農民和城市貧民，他們是在中國實在無以為生的狀況下才去澳大利亞謀生的。因而對物質生活要求不高，勤奮勞動，是最佳和最廉價的勞動力。

In the mines, Chinese miners earned only half the pay of their white counterparts, while Chinese labourers in the pastures also received significantly lower wages compared to white men. Similarly, Chinese sailors earned only a quarter of what white sailors were paid. Because of their low payment, Chinese labourers naturally became the first choice of white employers. This inevitably stirred up jealousy and resentment among white union leaders and workers, who felt that Chinese labourers had taken away their jobs and diminished their earnings. They complained that Chinese labourers swarmed like locusts. They were anywhere, wanted anything, seized the mineral resources discovered by the white miners and left nothing behind. Many white union leaders and miners believed that gold mining rights should be reserved for them, considering it unfair for Chinese workers to be involved. In 1857, white miners in the Fryer’s Creek mine area said, “The depression in the mine area is due to the harmful influence of the Chinese presence.” In 1887, when the Chinese Ambassadors went to the United Kingdom, lodged a protest with the British authorities based on reports from Wang Ronghe and Yu Sui, who had conducted investigations into the situation of overseas Chinese in Australia. On January 23, 1888, the British Colonial Secretary forwarded a request to the Governors of various regions in Australia for clarification. The replies from these Governors were largely similar: “It has been confirmed that Chinese labourers are formidable competitors to white workers in various industries in Australia. If left unrestricted, allowing them to compete will inevitably result in low wages and make life difficult for white workers.”

在礦區，華僑礦工的工資只有白人礦工的一半，牧場華工工資也比白人低得多，華僑水手工資只及白人水手的1/4。因為他們的報酬低，自然成為白人僱主首選的僱傭對象。這就不可避免地引起白人工會領袖及工人的妒忌和不滿，認為華工搶去了他們的飯碗，降低了他們的收人。他們埋怨“華工就像蝗蟲一樣擠在一起，無孔不入，什麼都要，連白人礦工發現的資源也給他們截留了，被耗盡後什麼也沒給留下”。許多白人工會領袖及礦工認為金礦的開採權應該是屬於他們的，而現在卻讓華工介入，自然很不公平。1857年弗萊爾斯溪礦區的白人礦工說:“礦區的蕭條是由於華僑帶來的有害的影響。” 1887年，中國駐英公使根據王榮和、余㻪考察澳大利亞僑情的報告向英方提出交涉。1888年1月23日，英國殖民大臣轉送給澳大利亞各地總督請求解釋，這些總督回電的答覆大致相同:“經驗證明，在澳百業，華工是白人工人的勁敵，如不加以限制，聽其競爭，必然導致工資低廉而使白人工人生活窘迫。”

In 1850, Chinese immigrants remitted gold worth 500,000 pounds back to Canton, arousing envy among the white population. In 1888, the Governor of South Australia said, “The life habits of these Chinese made them easy to survive and make a big money, but European immigrants and their families will starve or die of hunger.” Similarly, an official in New South Wales expressed, “Considering the temporary stay rather than permanent settlement of these Chinese immigrants, their work is going to be not beneficial to Australian society.” 

1850年，澳大利亞華僑匯回廣州的黃金折價50萬鎊，也使白人眼紅。1888年，南澳總理說:“華僑的生活習慣使他們易於生存而且能賺很多錢，歐洲移民及其家屬卻將挨餓或餓死。”新南威爾士的一位官員認為:“中國人到澳大利亞只作短暫停留而不定居，他們的勞動對澳大利亞社會是毫無利益可言的。”

When gold mines gradually depleted, many white miners switched to laundry, furniture, grocery, and banana trade industries. Meanwhile, there were also numerous Chinese workers in those sectors, who could work for a long time with lower wages. Additionally, Chinese workers were adept at improving technology and reducing costs, and all those above led to dissatisfaction among their white colleagues. In the 1890s, Australia experienced economic downturns and intensified competition. Given that, Laundry Association Australia criticized Chinese workers for competing with them on unequal terms. The association demanded the government revise the relevant law to impose stricter restrictions and crackdowns on the economic activities of overseas Chinese. They prohibited the opening of new laundry businesses owned by overseas Chinese and even revoked licenses from existing ones owned by overseas Chinese.

當金礦逐步枯竭後，不少白人礦工轉去從事洗衣、傢具、雜貨和香蕉貿易業。在這些部門也有不少華僑從業人員。他們工作時間長，為僱主打工者工資較低。再加上華僑善於改進技術，降低成本，因而引起白人同行的不滿。19世紀90年代澳大利亞經濟不景氣，經濟競爭尤為激烈。在這種情況下，白人洗衣協會就指責華僑同行是在不平等的基礎上同他們競爭。他們要求政府修訂法律，更嚴厲限制及打擊華僑經濟，不準新的華僑洗衣店開業，甚至吊銷已有的華僑洗衣店執照。

2. White Supremacy

Europeans were the pioneers of early colonialism. They always fabricate some so-called scientific theories to justify their aggressive expansionist actions, like exploiting the abundant natural resources of other continents, seizing other countries’ territories and oppressing and exploiting the aboriginal peoples and other ethnic immigrants who lived in those areas. They distorted Darwin’s theories of evolution, whose cornerstone principle is survival of the fittest, but propagated ideas of Social Darwinism and The White Man’s Burden theory. They foolishly claimed that only white people and Western culture are the most advanced, and gorgeous in the world, and thus, white people have the right and the duty to disseminate their culture to other parts of the world. Those views had long been disseminated by the White supremacist expansionists though this set of fallacious doctrines was officially introduced by the Western governments in the late 19^th century.

二、白人種族優秀論

歐洲人是早期殖民主義者的先鋒。他們為了掠奪其他洲豐富的自然資源，侵佔他國的地盤，壓迫和剝削這些地方的原住民及其他族移民，總要製造一些所謂的理論依據，來為他們的侵略擴張行為辯護。他們歪曲達爾文“適者生存”的進化論，宣揚“社會達爾文主義”及“白種人責任論”，胡說什麼只有白種人和西歐文明才是世界上最先進的最優秀的種族和文明，白種人有權利並且有義務把西歐文明傳播到全世界。儘管這套謬論19世紀後期才正式系統出台，但是白人種族主義擴張分子很早就已經在散播這些觀點。

As veteran imperialists of colonialism, proponents of British imperialism had long distributed a misleading statement that there is no race more superior than the Anglo-Saxons and used it as a justification for building colonial empires in these territories. Upon Australia coming under British colonial rule, most of the white immigrants in Australia were from England, fostering a pervasive belief in white racial supremacy among governing and upper classes, including landowners, mining owners, and union leaders, which eventually led to strong racial sentiment. When they saw there were more and more overseas Chinese in the same land, they harbored deep-seated racial prejudices towards Chinese immigrants. They strongly opposed Chinese immigration and devised various pretexts to restrict or even prohibit the immigration of Chinese. For those who already made their living in Australia, white immigrations utilized every method they could come up with to ostracize and tamp down on them. In such circumstances, the phenomenon of discrimination against overseas Chinese was prevalent in both upper classes and common people, with insulting terms “Chow” and “John Chinaman” commonly used to demean overseas Chinese.

作為老牌殖民主義者的英帝國主義分子，很早就開始宣揚所謂盎格魯—撒克遜民族是地球最優秀民族的謬論，並將其作為他們建立殖民地帝國的理論依據。澳大利亞成為英國殖民地後，白人移民絕大多數來自英國，各地的統治階層、農牧場主、礦主、工會領袖等一些上層分子腦子裡裝滿了白人種族優秀論，種族主義情緒異常強烈。當他們看到華僑逐步增多時，種族偏見油然而生，開始起勁地起來反對中國移民，製造各種借口來限制甚至禁止中國人入境，對於已在澳大利亞謀生的華僑，則想盡辦法加以排斥打擊。在這種情況下，無論是在澳大利亞上層社會還是在民間，普遍存在歧視華僑的氛圍。白人習慣用侮辱性的字眼稱呼華僑為“Chow”(中國狗)或“John Chinaman”(中國佬)。

Some white people in the White Cliffs opposed the practice of “The inferior nation (referring to overseas Chinese) to cohabit with Europeans” which was permitted by the government. In the eyes of some white supremacists, “white people are superior, advanced and educational, while Chinese people are deemed inferior, characterized by backwardness, stagnation, stubbornness, and aging.” They perceived that “people of colour conduct themselves like animals, such as hyenas, ants, bees, cockroaches, or octopuses. Chinese immigrants are viewed as useful slaves for Capitalism while they are also considered dangerous and threatening.” John Plunkett, a lawyer from New South Wales, regarded Chinese immigrants as “the most ferocious and blood-thirsty race he had ever seen.” Consequently, Europeans must not engage in intermarriage with Chinese as it would only produce “the inferior breed”, thus tainting the purity of the white race.”

白崖礦區的一些白人反對當局允許“低等民族(指華僑)同歐洲人混居在一起”。在一些白人種族主義分子看來，“白人是優秀的、先進的、有文化的民族，而中國人是劣等民族，其特點是倒退、停滯、頑固及老化。”在白人眼中，“有色人種就像動物一樣，如同一群豺狼、螞蟻、蜜蜂、蟑螂、章魚那樣活動。華僑對資本主義來說是有用的奴隸，但又是危險的和有威脅性的民族。歐洲人難以同他們相處。”新南威爾士律師普龍克特認為，華僑是從未見過的殘忍而又嗜血成性的民族，因而歐洲人絕不可以同華僑通婚，通婚只能生下下等人，白人就不純潔了。

Some scholars thought that the primary cause of the White Australia policy was to maintain the pure blood of the local British. Australians were afraid that non-Europeans would undermine the characteristics of British society. Henry Parkes, the Premier of NSW, explained that, the White Australia policy “is a question of policy of the first magnitude to cement society together by the same principles of faith and jurisprudence, the same influence of language and religion, and the same national habits of life.” Given the difficulty for overseas Chinese and other Asians to integrate into the community, exclusion was seen as a largely necessary measure to maintain ‘White Purity’. Alfred Deakin, Australia’s second Prime Minister, also expressed his opinions that “The White Australia policy goes down to the roots of our national existence, the roots from which the British social system has sprung.”

一些學者認為，實行白澳政策的主要原因是要維持在澳大利亞的英國人的純潔性。澳大利亞人害怕非歐洲人會摧毀英國社會的特徵。這一點，新南威爾士的總理帕克斯也表白得很清楚。他解釋白澳政策是“這樣的一種政策：根植於相同信仰和法律原則組成的團結的社會，這個社會具有相同的語言、宗教影響以及共同的民族生活習慣”。而華僑及其他亞洲人是很難融入這種社會中去的，為了維持“白人社會的純潔性”，因而抵制他們就是非常必要的了。聯邦政府的第二任總理迪金也認為，白澳政策深深紮根於英國民族中，紮根於英國的社會制度之中。

To deepen public acceptance of the White Australia Policy and garner support from the white people community, Australian government officers or newspapers were constantly propagating the fallacy of white superiority and the inferiority of people of colour. Deakin expressed, “We here find ourselves touching the most profound instinct of individual or nation”. Member of Parliament, Wilkinson said, (we) should make the Australian people the best in the world and not be the slaves of the Asians. Chris Watson of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) remarked, “The objection I have to mixing of coloured people with the white people of Australia… lies in the main in the possibility and probability of racial contamination.” A white racist in Victoria smeared, “In Warrnambool and Gomorra, there lived a horrendous group of nomadic Chinese who were thieves, murderers, and adulterers. They were cruel and violent, seducing and insulting white women. Young white women fall prey to their delusion.”

為了使白澳政策更加深入人心，以取得白人社會的擁護與支持，澳大利亞的官員或報紙不斷製造白人優秀、有色人種低劣的謬論。迪金認為：“我們是最天才的民族”。國會議員威爾金森說：應該使澳大利亞民族成為世界最優秀的民族，而不能成為亞洲人的奴隸。工黨的沃森說：“我反對有色人種同澳大利亞白人的融合，因為這樣一來可能造成人種的污染”。維多利亞的一個白人種族主義分子污衊說：“在索多姆、戈莫拉的華僑住宅區住着一群可怕的華僑游牧民族，他們是賊、殺人犯、通姦犯。他們殘忍、凶暴，勾引並侮辱白人婦女。年輕的白人婦女在他們迷糊下上當受騙了”。

White racists not only discriminated against pure-blooded Chinese immigrants but also against the second and third generations of mixed-race Chinese immigrant descendants. William Liu^, a prominent leader among overseas Chinese, whose father was a first-generation Chinese immigrant and whose mother was a British immigrant, deeply felt the impact of this discrimination. Liu said, “I was born in Sydney. My mom was from London and she moved to Australia with her family when she was four years old. Like thousands of other Chinese immigrants, my father participated in the reclamation of the Riverina which was almost cultivated by the Chinese. My mother served as an assistant pianist at the Overseas Chinese Christian Church in Sydney. However, when she married my father, her family members refused to acknowledge the relationship and didn’t attend the wedding ceremony. They also did not visit when my siblings and I were born. He added, “The way white people in Australia treated overseas Chinese is the same as what they had done to Tasmanian Aboriginals.” Due to the discrimination, Liu was excluded from the white social circle and was unable to grow up like other normal Australian children.

白人種族主義者不僅歧視純血統的華僑，而且歧視混血的第二代、第三代的華僑子女。這一點，著名的華僑領袖、父親為第一代中國移民、母親是英國移民的劉光福體會很深。他說:“我出生在悉尼。母親來自倫敦。她4歲時隨家人移居澳大利亞。我父親在里弗賴納墾荒。那裡有數千華僑種地。里弗賴納幾乎是華僑一手開墾出來的。我母親是悉尼華僑基督教堂的助理琴師。當她與我父親結婚時，母親一家人都不承認，也不參加婚禮。我們兄弟姐妹出生時，也不來看望。”他還說:“澳大利亞對待華僑就如同以前對待塔斯馬尼亞的土著那樣。”由於劉光福受到歧視，因此被拒之於白人生活圈之外，不能像澳大利亞兒童那樣正常成長。

3. The Differences Between Cultures

Early Chinese immigrants were born in China, they were deeply rooted in Chinese traditional culture while white immigrants in Australia retained the British culture and traditions. Naturally, significant differences existed between the two cultures, which widened as White nationalist sentiments grew.

三、文化傳統的差異

早期華僑出生在中國，深受中國傳統文化的影響。澳大利亞白人移民則保留英國文化傳統。兩種文化自然有很大不同。這種文化方面的鴻溝隨着白人民族主義情緒的增長而擴大。

Jefferson, a former official in New South Wales, said “History will prove that the characters of the Chinese will pose a greater danger to us than their vices. We need the dominance of British culture, British laws, and the social norms prevalent in Australia. A large influx of Chinese immigrants would be detrimental to our future, thus we must refuse their entry.” The Tasmanian government telegraphed the British government in March-April 1888, stating “Chinese culture has a long history and has continued influence on Chinese people, which is fundamentally distinct from the prevailing European culture in Australia. Therefore, Australia must continue to preserve European culture.”

曾任新南威爾士官員的傑佛斯說: “事實將證明，對我們來說，中國人的品德將比他們的惡習更具危險性。我們需要英國文明、英國法規以及英國的社會生活方式在澳大利亞占統治地位。如果中國人大批湧來並占多數，其結果對我們的將來將是非常不幸的。因而必須將他們拒之於境外。” 塔斯馬尼亞政府於1888年三四月間致電英國政府說:“中國文化源遠流長。它同與已在澳大利亞廣為流行的歐洲文化有本質上的區別。澳大利亞必須繼續保留歐洲文化。”

4. The Different Religious Believes

The European immigrants to Australia were almost Catholics or Christians, while Chinese immigrants were more influenced by Buddhism, Taoism or Confucianism. Those Christians who harboured religious prejudices against overseas Chinese perceive themselves as the cultural children of God, while overseas Chinese, who do not believe in God, are regarded as “‘cruel’ and ‘dishonest’, were guilty of ‘secret societies’ and ‘atrocities’, …, and were of a ‘different colour’ and of ‘most immoral, filthy and treacherous habits’”.

四、宗教信仰的不同

澳大利亞的歐洲移民基本上是天主教徒或基督教徒。而中國移民則多受到佛教、道教或儒家學說的影響。那些對華僑懷有宗教偏見的基督教徒把自己看成是有文化的上帝的子民，而華僑不相信上帝，是異教徒，被描寫成“殘暴、不誠實、秘密結社的犯罪分子以及兇惡的人。是不同膚色的人，最不道德、不清潔和很危險的人。”

These European immigrants who believed in God aimed to establish a “democratic society” in Australia. However, the arrival of Chinese people was perceived as an obstacle, as they were believed to undermine the democratic social system. White people considered it their prerogative to drive them out of Australia.

這些信仰上帝的歐洲移民要在澳大利亞建立一個“民主社會”，中國人的到來被認為是一種障礙，他們將破壞民主制，白人認為將他們趕出澳大利亞理所當然。

5. The Concern about China Exploiting Overseas Chinese to Encroach Upon Australia

In the early population of Australia, apart from European immigrants, overseas Chinese constituted the largest group of non-white immigrants. According to statistics from 1861, among men over the age of 20 in New South Wales, there were 114,944 white men and 12,986 overseas Chinese, that is, overseas Chinese accounted for 1/8. The statistic instilled fear and unease among some white people. After the first intercolonial conference, statements such as “yellow fever” and “Australia belongs only to Australians” went viral, causing white people to worry about the escalating influx of Chinese immigrants potentially taking over Australia.

五、擔心中國利用華僑侵佔澳大利亞

早期澳大利亞的總人口中，除歐洲移民外，華僑是最多的外來非白人移民。據1861年的統計，新南威爾士20歲以上的男子中，白人為114944人，華僑為12986人，即華僑佔1/8.47 這就引起一些白人的驚恐和不安。1880年第一次州際會議後，“黃禍論”及“澳大利亞是澳大利亞人的澳大利亞”的言論開始流行，白人擔心華僑人數的猛增將會吞噬掉澳大利亞。

For instance, John Downer in South Australia believed that “a young nation, such as any of the Australian colonies, ‘should not make its relation with a powerful nation at its doors so friendly that in future times we might have cause for bitter regret’”. W. Forrest in Queensland advocated Chinese exclusion, citing China’s proximity to Australia and its large population. The investigation of conducted by Wang Ronghe and Yu Sui heightened the concerns of white Australians, who feared that more immigrants would be sent from China. They warned that these Chinese immigrants would “swarm in like locusts; that without restriction European labour would be swamped by the ‘pent up torrent of humanity in China’; that, though numbers might now appear to be relatively small and the Chinese unoffending, ‘the moment they became a majority in any locality or arrive in any great numbers… they act on the aggressive.’”. Overseas Chinese were depicted as military conquerors and barbarians. The Courier Mail of Brisbane published articles in December 1878 and January 1879, stating that “The aggression of the Chinese immigrants is imminent. The yellow peril is at our doorstep. We must fight. The issue of Chinese immigrants is becoming increasingly serious. Due to the crisis becoming more urgent and threatening, we must be prepared to face reality, and we must address this issue.” A newspaper in Victoria stated: “Chinese secret societies are attempting to overthrow the Australian government.”

例如南澳的約翰·唐納就認為，澳大利亞任何一個年輕的殖民區都不能同中國這樣的大國保持聯繫。因為中國是不友好的國家。否則我們將會後悔不已。昆士蘭的福雷斯特贊成排華，理由是中國離澳大利亞很近，人口又多。王榮和、余㻪的考察使更多白人擔心中國將會派更多移民到澳大利亞，他們將“像蟬那樣成群而至，如果不加限制，歐洲移民將大批被湧來的中國人所淹沒。華僑現在是少數，但會變成多數。他們會以各種方式進入澳大利亞，他們的目的就是要侵略澳大利亞”。華僑被描寫成軍事征服者，是野蠻人。1878年12月及1879年1月的布里斯班《信使報》發表文章說：“華僑對我們的侵略迫在眉睫。黃禍就在我們家門口。我們必須戰鬥。華僑問題變得日益嚴重了。由於危機日益迫切及更具威脅性，我們必須準備面對現實，我們必須來解決這個問題。”維多利亞的一家報紙說：“華僑秘密會社企圖推翻澳大利亞政府。”

Obviously, the statements above were all based on racism, and those slanderous words were backed by no evidence.

顯然，上述種種說法是出於種族偏見的，這些污衊性語言是毫無事實根據的。

6. The Difference in Lifestyle Habits

When Chinese immigrants arrived and settled in Australia, they still wore traditional Chinese clothes with a braid on their heads, which surprised white immigrants. Even Chinese immigrants’ simple activities like cooking outdoors and chatting were considered unfavourably by some white people.

六、生活習俗的差異

當華僑大批到達澳大利亞並定居下來時，他們的頭上還扎着辮子，身上穿的是中國式服裝，當然會使白人移民深感驚異。甚至華僑在屋外煮飯，一起聊天，也被認為是缺點。

Richard Lawal, a Victorian senator, said, those Chinese immigrants were dirty and didn’t pay attention to their hygiene. They were accused of spreading diseases such as leprosy and fever, bringing various bacteria to Australia. The newspaper owned by white people claimed that the plague brought by Chinese people led to death, and their work shelters were always smelly. They not only had diseases like fever, and leprosy, but also the Black Death, smallpox, cholera, ulcers, measles, and so on. Leprosy, in particular, instilled fear in white people as it was a disease that was exclusive to people of colour. White people also considered the clothing, vegetables and furniture of Chinese immigrants posed a risk of spreading diseases. Moreover, white people also thought that Chinese immigrants waste water and polluted water sources. In a nutshell, in the eyes of white supremacists, all the lifestyle habits of Chinese immigrants were considered inferior and wrong, and they were seen as the source of every disease.

維多利亞議員理查德・瓦爾說:華僑不講衛生，骯髒。他們傳染麻風病、發熱病，帶來各種各樣的病菌。白人辦的英文報紙說:華僑瘟疫使人得病死亡。華僑的工棚散發出陣陣惡臭。他們不僅患發熱病、麻風，還有黑死病、天花、霍亂、潰瘍、麻疹等等。麻風是有色人種才有的病，是白種人所最害怕的。華僑的衣服、蔬菜及傢具也都有傳染疾病的危險。白人還認為華僑用水浪費，不衛生，污染了水源。總之，在白人種族主義分子看來，華僑的生活習俗都不順眼，他們是傳播一切疾病的根源。

In 1900, there were only twenty to thirty overseas Chinese who suffered from leprosy in Victoria, however, public opinion distorted the fact to portray all Chinese immigrants as lepers. The government responded by isolating suspected leprosy-afflicted overseas Chinese, prohibiting them from leaving their homes and forcing them to live in remote areas. Every week, those Chinese could only get 5 cents from the government, which was barely enough to stave off hunger. Consequently, some Chinese people succumbed to malnutrition while some resorted to begging to survive. In 1884, a Chinese patient in Ballarat was homeless after his house was burned down by white people, and eventually died in the cemeteries near the hospital.

1900年，維多利亞只有二三十個華僑麻風病患者，卻被輿論宣染成全澳華僑都是麻風病人。政府隔離這些被懷疑有麻風病的華僑，禁止他們上街，住在遠離人群的地方。每周只發給每人5個先令，說是既不會餓死，也不會太舒服。結果，有的人因營養不良而死去，有的靠行乞苟延殘喘。1884年，巴勒拉特的一個華僑病人，被白人燒掉了房子，最後死在醫院附近的公墓。

7. Safety Considerations

In the late 19th century, people of colour who were excluded by the White Australia policy were not limited to Chinese immigrants but also included other Asian immigrants. At that time, Japan was powerful defeated China and Russia, and sent warships to Australia to show off its military capacity. Meanwhile, the number of Japanese in Australia was increasing gradually, reaching 3,248 Japanese immigrants in Queensland in 1898. Just like white people were concerned about Chinese immigrants invading Australia, they also had the same concerns regarding Japanese immigrants. During the First World War, Australian Prime Minister William Morris Hughes said, “White Australia would be an illusion without military capacity backed up. We already declared to the world that Australia belongs to white people, with a 4,200,000 population, only 21,000 soldiers, and 5,000 to 6,000 reserve forces. Besides, we don’t allow people of colour to come to Australia.”

七、安全方面的考慮  

19世紀末，白澳政策所排斥的有色人種已不限於中國移民還包括其他亞洲移民。當時日本國力強盛，曾先後戰勝中國及俄國，並派軍艦訪澳炫耀武力。與此同時，在澳的日本僑民也日見增多。1898年，在昆士蘭的日僑即達3 248人。就像擔心華僑侵佔澳大利亞一樣，白人也擔心日本侵略澳大利亞。第一次世界大戰時，澳大利亞總理休士就曾說過:“若無武力為後盾，則我們的白澳政策只是廢紙而已。我們已向世界宣稱，澳大利亞乃一白種人國家。我國人口420萬，士兵才2.1萬，後備力量5000人至6000人，我們不許有色人種進人。”

It is needed to know that the implementation of the White Australia policy was highly related to the international anti-Chinese movement. The Chinese Exclusion Supplement Act of 1884 in the United States declared that overseas Chinese nationwide and their descendant would always be regarded as overseas Chinese no matter whether they were naturalized or not. In 1885, the Canadian government increased the border tax for Chinese from $10 to $50 per person. In March and April 1888, all Australian governments asked the British government to introduce America’s Chinese Exclusion Act and supported the Australian government to impose more severe restrictions on further immigration. Given that we can know that the Chinese exclusion movement in North America has played a great role in boosting the anti-Chinese movement in Australia.

必須指出的是，白澳政策的推行與國際排華浪潮密不可分。美國1884年的排華補充法案規定，世界各國華僑及其後代不論是否已歸化，永遠當華僑看待。1885年，加拿大政府將中國人的人境稅從每人10加元增至50加元。1888年三四月間，澳大和亞各地政府即曾要求英國政府援引美國排華法，同意澳大利亞更嚴厲限制中國人人境。可見，北美的排華運動對澳大利亞的排起着推波助瀾的作用。

Some white people considered Chinese immigrants as a group of heinous people whose entry should be limited or even prohibited. However, among the white masses, some objective people opposed restriction and spoke for the overseas Chinese.

儘管在某些白人看來，華僑是“十惡不赦”的中國移民，必須限制或禁止他們人境。但是在白人群眾中，也不乏主持公道，為華僑說話的有識之士。

Some humanitarians argued that Chinese people were sober and hardworking, and they can become good servants, miners, porters or fishermen. Morris and O’Brien, who came from New South Wales, believed that overseas Chinese were not heinous and immoral, but honest and peaceful. Therefore, the campaigns against them were merely a stupid and spontaneous act of racial prejudice of some people. Hay, Dickson and Rotton went further, they believed that the restrictions were a denial of justice, and it was also unfair to the early Chinese immigrants.

一些人道主義者認為，中國人嚴肅勤勞，可以成為很好的傭人、礦工、搬運工或漁夫。新南威爾士的莫里斯及奧不賴恩認為，華僑並不兇殘、不道德，而是誠實及熱愛和平。排斥他們只是一些人的種族偏見所造成的，是庸人的無政府行為。哈伊、迪金森及羅頓認為，排華論是對正義的否定，對早期華僑史來說也是不公正的。《墨爾本月刊雜誌》表示歡迎華僑，認為他們是好朋友。他們之中有好傭人，有些人是市場的好顧客。

Reverend J. West, the editor of the Sydney Morning Herald and a Congregationalist minister, remarked that the Chinese were an equal part of God’s creation, which he took for granted. He criticized the simplistic views of some, who regarded the Chinese as nothing more than a ‘herd of cattle’, unable to see beyond their unfamiliar appearance and clothing. However, he argued that their common humanity was evident in their well-organized, cooperative migration schemes and their desire to earn money in Australia to support their families back home. He praised the achievements of Chinese civilization and challenged those who harped on the superiority of the British race to compare the drunken white labourer with the sober, law-abiding, industrious Chinese. 

《悉尼先驅晨報》編輯、公理會教徒雷文德·韋斯特認為，華僑是上帝公平創造出來的一員。有些人把華僑看成是獸群，僅從穿着、膚色來判斷他們是奇異的種族，顯然是錯誤的。華僑的普通人性表現為有良好的訓練、團結協作的移民精神。他們到澳大利亞來的目的只是為了攢錢養家。他讚揚中國文化。他說：那些老說英國種族優秀的人比一比吧：白人勞工是醉鬼，而華僑則不喝酒，而且遵守紀律，勤奮工作。

Some members of parliament in Western Australia thought that Chinese were clever, hardworking, patient, and free from the bottle. They also received better education than Europeans. Chinese people planted vegetables in Perth and other places in Australia, while there were no white people would like to undertake such tasks. Those Chinese immigrants were willing to work for low wages that white people could not accept. Gambling was a common phenomenon. In terms of health issues, both white people and Chinese immigrants faced similar challenges.

西澳的一些議員認為華僑聰明、勤勞、有耐心、不喝酒，教育程度比歐洲人高。他們在珀思等地種植蔬菜。除了華僑，沒有一個白人男子願意種菜。華僑願意干白人不願乾的低工資得到勞動。賭博是普遍現象。至於疾病問題，白人及華僑都有。

The Radical in New South Wales expressed, “taking an anarchist egalitarian line supporting both European and Chinese workers, as equals, …, the Earth is the Lord’s and that all men are created alike in His image, that there should be no barriers against ‘the free circulation of people on God’s Earth’, and that that restrictive legislation was tantamount to ‘libelling’ the Creator.” The violent anti-Chinese riot at the Lambing Flat Folk, Member of Parliament Henry, pointed out in his letter to the Governor-General of New South Wales that: from the perspective of Australian interests, there should be no legislation to expel Chinese people; Chinese people are diligent and kind, especially skilled in agriculture.

新南威爾士的《激進報》認為，白人工人與華工是平等的。既然基督教認為種族皆兄弟，地球屬於上帝，所有人都是上帝所創造，就不應該有反對自由人的圍牆，限制移民等於污辱上帝。藍坪攤排華事件中的議員亨雷在致新南威爾士總司令函中指出：從澳大利亞利益方面考慮，實不應有任何驅逐中國人的立法。中國人勤勞和善，尤其擅長農業。

Some white people pointed out impartially that white prostitutes in Chinatown were working as prostitutes long before the arrival of Chinese immigrants. The crime rate among Chinese was noticeably lower than among Europeans and alcoholism was almost entirely absent.

一些白人還公正地指出，唐人街的白人妓女早在中國人到來之前即已存在。犯罪的華僑比白人少，酗酒幾乎沒有。

However, in the pervasive atmosphere of racism across Australia, the voices advocating for ethnic equality and the fair treatment of Chinese immigrants were naturally disregarded by racists. The voice “White Australia” finally gain ground. In a Queensland parliamentary debate in 1888, one could even hear statements like: “We want no Chinese here at all; we do not want this country a mixture of Chinaman and whites; we want it for whites along.” On January 1, 1901, one member of the new Federal Parliament requested that the new nation retain “the noble ideal of a White Australia-a snow-white Australia if you will. Let it be pure and spotless.” This statement clearly uncovered the motives of the proponents of the White Australia Policy.

但是，在種族主義論瀰漫全澳的形式下，那些堅持民族平等、善待華僑的呼聲自然是不為種族論者所接受的。要建立“白人的澳大利亞”的論調終於佔了上風。1888年在昆士蘭議會辯論中甚至能聽到這樣的言論：“我們不要華僑留在這裡，不要在這個國家有中國佬同白人生下的混血兒。我們只要純白的白人。”1901年1月1日，一位議員說：我們要建立的新國家要立足於“高貴的白澳思想：一個雪白的澳大利亞，純粹的澳大利亞，純潔的澳大利亞。”它赤裸裸地表達了白澳政策論者的動機。

Chapter 4 The Resistance and Struggle of Overseas Chinese

第四節 華僑的反抗與鬥爭

Overseas Chinese in the early period did not give in when facing the discrimination and persecution of white supremacists, as well as oppression and exploitation from white ranchers and factories. They made every effort to fight back.

面對白人種族主義者的歧視迫害以及白人農牧場主、工廠的壓迫與剝削，早期澳大利亞華僑並沒有屈服，他們儘可能利用各種方式展開反抗與鬥爭。

The main methods they used include:

Petition

這些方式主要有：

請願。

In 1857, the Victoria Parliament passed a regulation that charged overseas Chinese a one-pound residence tax. In response, the Chinese community collectively signed a petition to the Victoria government, requesting the cancellation of this tax. In the petition, they detailed the various hardships they faced due to exploitation by ship owners and brokers. They wrote:

“We were so happy to come to this mine for gold. We originally thought that British people were friendly, which made us cheerful. However, now we know that they were complaining about us in the newspaper, saying that the Chinese did not bring their wives with them. We did that for reasons. First, we intended to leave our wives at home so that our aging parents could be taken care of. Second, the climate in Victoria was harsh, plus Chinese women did not like British women, they could not even stand steadily on the ships, not to mention walk. Finally, we cannot afford their travel costs. Some also complained that the Chinese neither buy land nor work on the farms. However, this is due to our lack of money that is required for those activities. The fact is that we worked in fields abandoned by Europeans, and the money we earned only met the basic needs of our lives. If we had as many chances as the Europeans to obtain gold, we would not be that poor. As long as we got our wages, we would send them to elderly parents at home, as the old sayings told us. Just like the British people, thousands of Chinese have never been home since we came to this goldfield. the difference between us and the British is that they are rich while we are poor. Therefore, only two or three pounds of gold will satisfy us when we go back to China.

1857年，維多利亞議會通過每月徵收華僑1鎊居住稅的條例。華僑集體簽名聯名上書政府，要求取消此稅。他們在信中訴說了受到船主、經紀人盤剝的種種苦況。請願書上寫道:

“我們華人高高興興來到這礦場淘金，當初以為英國人是很友善的。我們為此覺得欣喜。現在我們知道報紙在埋怨，說華人不帶妻子來。我們這樣做是為了留下一些家人來照顧年老的父母，而這邊氣候也非常惡劣。況且我們的女人不像英國女人，她們在船上不會走路，也不能站立。還有，我們無法付出那筆旅費。另一種埋怨說:中國人不買土地也不到農場去工作。這是因為需要很多資本的緣故。我們在歐洲人棄置不要的場地上做活，僅足活命而已。如果我們有歐洲人取得那麼多金子的機會，我們也不該像今天那麼窮了。一有點錢，我們便要寄給家裡的年老父母，這是古訓教導我們的。我們數以千計的人到這金礦區來，正和英國人一樣，沒有幾個人能再回去。英國人都有錢，我們華人都窮。我們回國的話，只要兩三磅的金子就心滿意足了。

Sometimes, Chinese people were seen taking lots of gold back home. That was because there were no post offices in China, and friends would ask them to carry some gold to support their starving parents and wives. As for those Chinese who were on board from Guichen Bay, not all of them evaded tax. In fact, some paid for that. This was not the fault of Chinese immigrants. At first, merchants and captains from Hong Kong were supposed to pay the tax and take us to Port Philip, rather than Guichen Bay. (Port Philip belongs to Victoria, and each Chinese person was required to pay a 10-pound entry tax. -Shen quoted.) ……Now the captain had taken our money away, and we heard that the Australian government required us to pay that tax. ……Neither did we understand English nor realize we had to go through a long and tough journey. We had never heard of the word “tax” when we were in our hometown. We were suffering since we had already paid the tax, but still had to endure hardship. (This showed that this petition was issued jointly by all Chinese immigrants. Some of them landed at Guichen Bay to evade taxes, while others landed at Port Philip and paid taxes. -Shen quoted.) Therefore, many people are hungry, get sick, and some even died. Now we heard about a requirement to pay 1 pound every month as a residence tax, which we cannot manage. Being a gold digger is hard work, and it’s difficult to survive. If we were taxed one pound per month, we will have no money have no money left for food. We are hereby hoping that the Parliament to exempt the tax, considering our poverty. All Chinese immigrants here would be grateful and would not forget the governor and senators who pleaded for the poor for good. We will be grateful for your mercy, our kind leader of the poor, even after we return to our hometown.

有時候我們中國人回去時，好像帶了許多金子，其實因為我們沒有郵局，朋友們都托他帶一點給他們在飢餓中的父母妻子的緣故。至於打圭晉灣上岸的華人，並不是全部都在逃稅，有些人的確是付了稅的。這不是中國人的過失，先是香港的商人和船長議定要付稅，把我們載到菲力蒲港，而不是到圭晉灣登岸（菲力蒲港屬維多利亞，照規定在這邊上岸，每一位華人該付10鎊入境人頭稅—沈注）……現在船長把我們的錢拿去了，才聽到政府說要我們交稅，……我們不懂英語，也不知路途遙遠，在家時，我們也不知什麼叫做稅。我們萬分痛苦，付了稅給船長，還要長途跋涉。（這表明這封請願書是所有華人聯名發出的，他們有的從圭晉灣上岸逃稅，有的則到菲力蒲港登陸交稅的——沈注）。許多人因此受飢餓、生病，有的死亡。現在聽到每月要1鎊的居住稅，我們不曉得怎麼辦。淘金很辛苦，真難活下去。如果每月要付1鎊的稅，我們有斷炊之虞。祈求議會為貧民着想，免除此稅。我們所有華人將因此得到快樂，而不敢忘記為貧民請命的州長和議員先生。對於如此仁慈的貧民領袖，即使我們將來返國後，亦將感恩戴德。