Australia and Overseas Chinese in Australia [Part. 2 Overseas Chinese in Australia] by: Chen Zhifu

Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1946.

澳洲及旅澳华侨 [下编 旅澳华侨]

作者：陈直夫

商务印书馆, 1946.

Chapter 1 Chinese Migration to Australia and the White Australia Policy

第I章 華人向澳之移殖與白澳政策之產生  

According to legend, it was as early as the thirteen century that the Chinese discovered Australia, and some stories also said that the traces of Chinese in Australia were recorded in the fourteenth century. However, these claims are yet to be proven, leaving people to get involved in archaeological expeditions and research to find further evidence.[1] The confirmed large-scale Chinese migration, beginning from 1840 to 1859, brought Chinese people to the colonies in southeastern and northwestern Australia for the gold rush and agricultural work, respectively, responding to the decision to import Asian workers by the local governments as an expedient to the shortage of the European labourers.[2] Yet the growing numbers of Chinese labourers were met with the resentment their white competitors held and the subsequent anti-Chinese activities, resulting from the qualities of endurance and perseverance displayed by Chinese. [3]    

[1]  Of all the “Chinese Discovery of Australia” theories, Gavin Menzies’ claim remains the most famous and controversial one. In the best-selling book, “1421: The year China discovered the world,” Menzies says that Zheng He (1371-1433), a famed eunuch admiral in China’s Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), led two fleets to Australia and America during an expeditionary treasure voyage. His book has been rejected and despised by the mainstream historians for lacking solid evidence and reliable resources. See Gavin Menzies, 1421: The Year China Discovered the World, London: Bantam Press, 2002. Also, see Robert Finlay, “How Not to (Re)Write World History: Gavin Menzies and the Chinese Discovery of America”, Journal of World History, 15 (2): 229, 2004, doi:10.1353/jwh.2004.0018 — Trans.

[2] The credibility of this sentence is slightly suspicious. The translator is unable to find any reference to prove that Chinese came to northwestern Australia to develop agricultural industry between 1840 and 1859. The only relevant history based on the research was this: From 1847 to 1898, the Chinese people, who were recruited in Singapore, came in Western Australia as indentured or contracted labourers for agriculturalist, pastoralists and pearlers. See James Jupp, ed., The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its people and their Origins, 2nd ed. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 2001, 214. — Trans.

[3]  In 1857, an infamous anti-Chinese race riot, known as Buckland Riot, occurred in the Buckland Valley, Victoria, where a group of European miners attacked Chinese encampment and burned homes and business, causing 20 deaths. Four years later, a similar violence appeared in Lambing Flat in New South Wales, which contributed to the Chinese Immigrant Restriction Act in the colony. See Susan Lawrence and Peter Davies, An Archaeology of Australia Since 1788, New York: Springer, 2011, 346. — Trans.

據傳說十三世紀華人卽已發現澳洲，亦有謂十四世紀澳洲卽有華人足跡，惟無信史可徵，仍有待於將來之考證，華人之大批移入澳洲，當在一八四零年至一八五九年之間，緣是時澳洲之東南部發現金鑛，西北部復開始農墾事業，由英移澳之人力有限，需工甚殷，歡迎華人入境，而華工之入口者遂衆，華工刻苦耐勞，漸爲白種工人所嫉視，而有排華之舉。

The following data were collected by the Commonwealth Government of Australia. The number of Chinese reached a peak in 1870 when an estimated 50,000 Chinese were reported within Australia, half of whom lived in Melbourne. However, a series of restrictive legislations against Chinese immigrants – so strict that they should be called prohibitive legislations – soon were in force and stemmed the inflowing current. The 385,238 Chinese of 1881 had by 1902 dwindled to 29,908. The number became 20,775 in 1911 and decreased to 15,000 by 1930. There are only about 12,000 Chinese in Australia right now.[1]

[1] The “now” in this sentence refers to the time that this book was finished. The translator speculates, based on the following text, that the time should be 1939. — Trans.    

據澳洲聯邦政府統計，華僑人數最多時，約在一八七零年間，全澳約有五萬餘人，內墨餌鉢一區，卽佔半數，後因屢加取締，形同禁止入境，以故人數漸減，一八八一年四月減至三八、五二三八，一九零二年減至二九、九0八人，一九一一年減至二0、七七五人，至一九三零年減至一五、000人，現在居留澳洲華僑僅在一萬二千人左右而已。

The restriction of Chinese immigration began in 1855. At that time, the colony of Victoria announced an Immigration Act in which both an entrance tax of £10 and residence tax of nearly £1 were enforced on Chinese in Australia. In addition to these obstacles, the Act also contained a provision that the number of Chinese to be carried on any vessel shall be limited to one for every ten tons of registered tonnage. From then on, more and more colonies began to follow the measures set by Victoria and impose barriers on Chinese from their arrival to residence. Tasmania, the only colony that was yet to enact restrictive legislations on Chinese, passed an immigration act in 1887, signaling that a barrier to restrict Chinese immigrant was erected all round the country.[1]

[1] The number of Chinese entering Tasmania at that time was not large, but with the development of tin and gold mines in 1885, the number of Chinese increased, which led to a growing opposition from white labourer to restrict Chinese. As a result, Tasmania passed an anti-Chinese legislation in 1887. See Year Book Australia, 1925.  — Trans.

Although restrictions on Chinese entry were successively implemented in different colonies, their stringency were yet to remain at the same level. Following the formation of the federal government in 1901, an Immigration Act was passed by the newborn Commonwealth Parliament and unified the restrictions upon Chinese.

限制華人入境辦法，雖已先後在各省實施，但其寬嚴並不一致，始至一九零一年聯邦政府成立，聯邦議會正式通過限制移民法案。至此限制華人入境之苛例全澳逐歸統一矣。

Prior to 1901, colonies reduced immigrant inflows mainly by preventing the arrival of Chinese labourers to Australia. Yet apart from enacting harsh entry provisions, the Immigration Act 1901 had gone further by placing heavy restrictions on Chinese residents, and therefore almost driving Chinese to the end of their tether. [1] Not only the entrance but also the residence now became a luxury for them. Even if they managed to enter Australia, leaving seemed a certainty anyway.

[1] The Act was provided for the removal from the Commonwealth of prohibited immigrants.  Seven conditions were listed in the Act to identify prohibitive immigrants, and anyone who met any of the seven conditions would be prevented from entering Australia. A notorious dictation test was introduced by the Act to screen non-European applicants for entry to Australia. The test can be given in any European language, so Chinese migrant who was fluent in English may be required to take the test in French, making it almost impossible for Chinese people to stay in Australia. Certificates of Domicile and Certificates of Exemption from the Dictation Test were also included in the Act with an intention to proscribe the rights of residency of the Chinese who were resident in Australia at that time. See the 1901 Immigration Restriction Act and Kuo Mei-fen, Making Chinese Australia: Urban Elites, Newspapers and the Formation of Chinese-Australian Identity, 1892-1912, Clayton, Vic: Monash University Publishing, 2013, 7. Also, see Lucille Lok-Sun Ngan and Chan Kwok-bun, The Chinese Face in Australia: Multi-Generational Ethnicity among Australian-Born Chinese, New York: Springer, 2012, 3.  — Trans.

The previous restrictions were intended to protect white workers and their incomes, thus ensuring that white labourers maintained high living standards. The enforcement of these restrictions was mainly fueled by economic factors. However, after the establishment of the federal government, the protection extended to the entire white community. With an aim to keep the race pure, the government implemented the White Australia Policy, signaling that the emphasis on discrimination against Chinese shifted from the economic side to that of racial.

澳洲政府以前所謂限制，其目的原爲保護白種工人，維持澳洲白種工人之生活標準，其動機偏於經濟，惟自聯邦政府成立以後，已由保護白種工人，進而保護白種人，其目的在求澳洲人種之純一，實施所謂白澳政策（White Australia Policy），於是由經濟上之歧視轉而爲種族上之歧視。

Under the White Australia Policy, some people in the governing party or the Opposition, though aware of the fact that the Policy was problematic, were reluctant to raise any objections to a national policy. Given that the slightest move could leave the party vulnerable to the attack from the Opposition, those members in governing party walked on egg shells and preferred to keep silence, thus contributing to a more severe limitation, with many unwritten restrictive rules were in place to fill the legal gap. Other members, however, could not care less about whether the Act was impartiality and suggested to play tough on immigration in exchange with the silence from their opponents and favors of white people. For this reason, the White Australia policy, a brutal and unfair racial policy, remained unchanged.

在所謂「白澳政策」大標題之下，不論在朝在野之人士雖有知「白澳政策」之不當，但同認爲國策，不敢稍持異議，尤其在朝政黨，惜施稍有不當，即受在野黨之攻擊，以故限制辦法，不特無所改善，且見日益嚴厲，法例之外更有種種慣例與習慣，其間竟有與白澳政策漠不相關者，蓋政府之意以爲失之過寬，受反對黨之攻擊，不如持之嚴密，以讨好白人，因是之故舉世所認爲不甚公平之白澳政策，仍堅持不變。

Chapter 2 An Overview on Overseas Chinese in Various States

第二章華僑移住各邦概况

New South Wales

It was the gold discoveries in New South Wales that led to the great influx of Chinese to meet the needs for labourer in the latter half of the 1850s. According to New South Wales Census in 1861, the number of Chinese had reached 13,000. Resentment from the white miners against Chinese miners soon began to build up and caused disturbance. When the Lambing Flat Riots[1] broke out in January 1861, Chinese labourers, the victims of the severe violence and looting, were driven away from the goldfields.[2] The underlying source of conflict is that Chinese miners were distinctly set apart from their white counterparts as they usually worked and socialized in their own groups and can sustain long hours of work. In addition to that, Chinese laborers lived frugally and never squandered their money on gambling or alcohol.[3]    

[1] Ann Curthoys, “Men of All Nations, except Chinamen: Europeans and Chinese on the Goldfields of New South Wales,” in Gold: Forgotten Histories and Lost Objects of Australia, ed., Iain McCalman, Alexander Cook and Andrew Reeves, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, 110-11. — Trans. 

[2] Harley Farnsworth MacNair, The Chinese Abroad Their Position and Protection: A Study in International Law and Relations (Shanghai: The Commercial Press, 1924), 71-72.

[3] MacNair, The Chinese Abroad, 70.

因該州發現金矿,需要大批勞工,以故一八五零年代之後半期，華僑急劇增加，據一八六一年之國勢调查，數達一萬三千人，但不久即引起白種勞工之反感，起而排華，翌年一月發生Lambing Flat事件,華工大受迫害,破壞财產,并被逐出金矿區(MacNair: Chines abroad P. 71-72) 其原因以華工勤儉耐勞,自成集團,不與白人交際,所得工資又不向賭場酒肆浪費(MacNair: P. 70)

The Chinese generally worked in large groups, panning and sluicing for gold.[1] Adopting a rather primitive mining technique, the European miners, who were attracted by get-rich-quick scheme, often engaged in extensive excavation and paid little attention on gravel containing gold. Those abandoned claims would be collected by the meticulous Chinese diggers and carefully washed to extract gold. The large reward they received for their hard work made the white miners even more jealous. A Chinese Immigration Restriction Act similar to the Victoria one was passed in New South Wales in 1861, limiting the number of Chinese to be carried on any vessel to one for every ten tons of registered tonnage. The Act imposed residency tax and restricted Chinese from obtaining Australian citizenship. When the tide of gold mining began to ebb, New South Wales saw a huge wave of Chinese and Europeans moving to other colonies. The Immigration Restriction Act became superfluous and was repealed in 1867, given the fact that only a limited number of Chinese remained.

[1] For more information about the pattern of work and labor organization among Chinese miners, please refer to the following: Mae M. Ngai, “Chinese Gold Miners and the ‘Chinese Question’ in Nineteenth-Century California and Victoria”, Journal of American History, Vol. 101, No.4 (Mar. 2015): 1082–1105,  https://doi.org/10.1093/jahist/jav112 . — Trans.  

華工大批在礦區洗淘砂金,當時歐人之採礦者存暴冨之念,從事濫掘,採金法又異常原始的。常將含黃金之礦砂拋棄,華人收集歐人之廢物,小心淘取,常得多量黄金,因此更爲歐人所嫉視,一八六一年遂通過其維多利亞州相同之法案,即限制華人移民法,依照該法,毎一輪船每十噸(登記吨)准華人一名,另抽居住稅,并保留華人之入籍權，但因砂金採掘業之衰退華人與歐人同樣向別處開拓，移日見減少，故于一八六七年又將移民法廢止。

After the majority of the colonies decided to adopt the uniform restrictive legislation on Chinese immigrants in Intercolonial Conference, the number of Chinese entering Australia dropped remarkably.[1] Even though Chinese could land in the Northern Territory, this place was restricted eventually.[2] A new restrictive law was passed in New South Wales in which the proportion was changed to one Chinese for every three hundred tons and a poll tax of one hundred pounds was collected.[3] This Act excluded Chinese from engaging in mining without permission from the minister for Mines, nor might they travel in the interior without special passports. The other colonies had tonnage laws also, allowing one Chinese only per five hundred tons.[4]  

[1]  The following excerpt is from Year Book Australia, 1925: “In 1880 and 1881, at the instigation of the Government of New South Wales, an Intercolonial Conference was held in Melbourne to discuss the question of Chinese immigration. As a result of this conference, which terminated its sittings in Sydney in the following year, uniform restrictive legislation was introduced by all the colonies except Tasmania.” — Trans.  

[2] The text here is a literal translation. The original text is “Dan yin beifang diyu keyi denglu, yi bei xianzhi 但因北方地域可以登陸,亦被限制” Because the logic is problematic, a new translation has been offered based on the comprehension for the text and the related historical material: “Although landing was allowed in Northern Territory where the South Australian restrictive policy did not apply, the door was closed eventually.” The measures taken in 1881 led to a significant reduction of the new Chinese arrivals. However, these restrictions were circumvented to some extent, and large numbers of Chinese landed in the Northern Territory, which was beyond the barriers against them. Therefore, in 1888, another conference was held, and further restrictions were imposed. See Year Book Australia, 1925.  — Trans.         

[3] Year Book Australia, 1925, 951-2.  

[4] MacNair, The Chinese Abroad, 71.

又因澳洲全體殖民地會議通過排華法案，华人入境者大爲減少，但因北方地域可以登陸,亦被限制，新南威爾士再定輪船每三百吨准带华人一名(official Year book 1925 P. 951-2)人头稅加至一百镑，華工非得礦務官憲之准許不得爲礦工，又無旅行准許證者不許在內地旅行，其他各州，亦以吨數爲限制標準，大概每五百噸准帶華人一名(MacNair: P. 71)

The number of Chinese in New South Wales from 1856 to 1926:

Since 1849, the figure for Chinese applying for Australian citizenship in New South Wales was 921 in total. The table below shows the number of Chinese departed from Australia between 1929 and 1937.

1849以來，在新南威爾士申請入澳籍之華僑總數計921人。由1929年至1937年，每年華僑离境數有如下表：

Victoria

The enormous influx of Chinese laborers wishing to make fortunes on the goldfields in Victoria soon found themselves being subject to bullying and discrimination by the European miners.[1] In 1855, the Government organized the Goldfields’ Royal Commission with the intention of investigating the conflict. It then received a recommendation from the Commission to restrict the entrance of Chinese. Following the advice, the Victorian Legislature passed an Immigration Act in June which demanded that the number of Chinese passengers each vessel can carry shall be limited to one for per 10 tons of cargo.[2] Alongside this was the enforcement of a poll tax of £10. A residence tax was also enforced, starting in 1857 as £1 per month for each Chinese and changing to £4 annually in the next year. This residence tax was abolished in 1862.[3] The same year also saw the elimination of the tonnage restrictions upon the Chinese passengers. The Immigrant Restriction Act was no longer in place after the Intercolonial Conference held in 1880-1.[4] Yet along with the Intercolonial Conference of 1888 came a more stringent restriction which required the number of Chinese passengers to be one person for every 500 tons.

[1] On July 4, 1854, a proposal has been put forward by white miners in Bendigo for “a general and unanimous uprising … for the purpose of driving the Chinese population off the Bendigo goldfields.” Yet this plan failed to be implemented due to the timely intervention of the local authorities and the colonial troopers. See John Fitzgerald, Big White Lie: Chinese Australians in White Australia. Sydney: UNSW Press, 2007, 38. — Trans.  

[2] The Victorian Act of 1855, also called “An Act to make Provision for Certain Immigrants,” was aimed at restricting Chinese people from entering the Colony. This law was the first of its kind in Australia. — Trans.  

[3] For a more intuitive understanding of the historical evolution of relevant laws, please refer to the book mentioned here: Adam M. Mckeown, Melancholy Order: Asian Migration and the Globalization of Borders. New York: Columbia University Press, 2011, 127. — Trans.

[4] According to the relevant historical records, it is fair to conclude that the author made a mistake here. The Act was repealed in 1865. On December 24th, 1881, “The Chinese Act, 1881,” the anti-Chinese act, was passed in Victoria. See Joseph Lee, “Anti-Chinese Legislation in Australasia,” in The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 3, No. 2 (Jan. 1889), 219, https://doi.org/10.2307/1879468. — Trans.  

In 1937, as few as 274 Chinese entered Australia via Victoria and 301 left from the colony, including those arrived or departed from Melbourne.

The below chart shows the number of Chinese in Victoria from 1854 to 1938.

一八五四——一九三八維多利亞之華僑人數有如左表：

Queensland

Queensland had an experience similar to that of Victoria and New South Wales where a stream of Chinese labourers rushed to the newly discovered goldfields in the colony. The government notified the Governor of Hong Kong in 1875 that Chinese arrivals were not welcome and that they would strictly examine the vessels carrying Chinese people to Cooktown.[1] In 1876, the authorities passed the Goldfields Act Amendment Act to enforce discriminative measures against Chinese miners. The exploitation of Chinese increased in 1884 with the new Act raising the poll tax to £30 and changing the passenger limitation on vessel from 10 tons to 50 tons. After the Intercolonial Conference of 1888, the Queensland Government applied the same law for the southern colonies.[2] The chart below shows the number of Chinese in Queensland from 1861 to 1933.

[1] The translation here was an effort by translator to assure the accuracy, for the author made some mistakes related to historical facts. A literal translation of the original text was offered here as well: “The Government notified the Governor of Hong Kong in 1670 that Chinese arrivals were not welcome and that they would ban vessels came from China to Cocktown.” Cooktown was the nearest port for the Palmer Goldfields in Queensland. The following excerpt is from the relevant official documents. “…By April 1875, the Government was warning Hong Kong, that: all steamers carrying Chinese to Cooktown will be liable to be detained there until the Health Officer satisfies himself that they are fit subjects to be landed; also, that it is proposed that all aliens shall be subject to a miner’s right of £4, and a business license of £8.” See Queensland’s V&P, 1875, p. 95. — Trans.  

[2] The text here is a literal translation. The original text is “kunshilan zhou zhengfu duiyu nanfang zhu zhimin yong tongyang lvli  昆士蘭州政府對于南方諸殖民用同樣律例”. Because it makes little sense, a new translation was added here as a result of the translator’s speculation on the basis of the relevant historical record: “After the Intercolonial Conference of 1888, an Act, which was akin to those in force in the southern colonies, was passed in Queensland.” – Trans.    

本州正如新南威爾士維多利亞洲一樣，同是發現金礦，致有大載移民，一六七零年該州政府禁止由中國庫克頓（Cock.town）之船舶往來,並通知香港總督不歡迎華人入境,一八七六年根據改正金礦法，對于華籍矿工於以差別待遇，一八八四年更以法律改正人頭稅，增加至三十鎊，船舶乘客之限制由十噸一人增至五十噸一人，一八八八年會議後，昆士蘭州政府對于南方諸殖民用同樣律例，茲將一八六一年——一九三三年各華僑人數列舉如下：

The number of 1933 is an outcome of field investigation. The ★ represents those born in China, and another 649 born in Australia were not included.

本表一九三三年人數係实地調査，★示在中國原籍出生者之人數，另有土生六百四十九人不算在內

In order to evade the 1855 Victoria Immigration Act, Chinese passengers landed at Guichen Bay with the assistance of the shipping companies, and then traveled overland to the goldfields in Victoria. With an intention to help the adjoining colonies and to curb the increase of Chinese immigrants, the South Australian Government passed an Act in 1857 which was identical with that of Victoria. The Act, however, was abolished in 1861 for bringing no benefit at all.[1] After the Intercolonial Conference held in 1880-1, a new Act, which was similar to the Queensland’s Act, began to be applied in 1871 to every part of South Australia, except the Northern Territory.[2] Then the legislation extended to the Territory in 1888, thus making the whole of Australia restrictive to the entry of Chinese.

[1] The accuracy of this sentence is questionable. In the original text, the Act was repealed for “百无好处 bai wu haochu” – meaning “bringing no benefit at all.” The Act, however, was proven to be effective in reducing the Chinese population in South Australia. Then it was repealed in 1861 – a time the gold rush was over – by Sir Richard MacDonnell (1814-1881), the Governor of South Australia, by claiming that this Act was conflicted with British’s freedom policy. See Joseph Lee, “Anti-Chinese Legislation in Australasia,” in The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 3, No. 2 (Jan. 1889): 218-224. Also, see Wilf Sprengel, The Ecstasy and Agony of Guichen Bay , Naracoorte [S. Aust.]: Hansen Print, 1986, 22-28. — Trans. 

[2] The Northern Territory usually saw very limited amount of labourers entered. The development of the tropical agriculture in there, therefore, made Legislative Council of South Australia became hesitant to expel the only kind of labourer who volunteered to go there. See Myra Willard, History of the White Australia Policy to 1920, 2nd ed. (Hong Kong: Melbourne University Press, 1947), 30. — Trans.

中國僑工因規避一八五五年維多利亜州之移民限制法，輪船公司在南澳Guichen Bay停輪以便華人上陸，由此處遵陸往維多利亞金礦區，南澳州為援助隣近殖民地及抑制華僑人口增加起見，一八五七年通過類似維州之法律，以為限制，但事實上因般無好處，遂於一八六一予以廢止，一八八0——八一全殖民會議後於一八七一年又仿昆士蘭州之限制移民法，但北方地域除外，始至一八八八年其限制法擴展，將北方地域亦包括在内，由此全澳洲對於華侨之入境，已完成壁壘而毫無空隙矣。

In 1935, South Australia had seen 2 arrivals, and 4 departures. Two years later, no Chinese entered or left there at all, and none applied for Australian nationality. The below chart illustrates the specific numbers of Chinese living in South Australia from 1881 to 1921, according to the international investigation. [1]

[1] This chart was from Official Year book 1925 P.953-4

一九三七年華僑出入境者均無，一九三五年入境者二人，出境者四人，亦無申請入籍者，兹將一八八一年——一九二一年國際調查期間，旅居該州之華侨人數列舉如下：

(A) Estimated (X) Not available

(A) 推定数 (X) 不详

Since the cessation of convict transportation, the Government of the Crown Colony in Western Australia, despite the effort to attract free immigrants of the labourering class, saw no growth of labourer input and turned its eyes to Chinese workforce. [1] 50 Chinese under labourer contracts were introduced in 1878 by the Government. After two years, a proposal was made to bring another 50 Chinese coolies. When gold was found in the Kimberley district, the Government of Western Australia feared that the Chinese would take over the goldfields and decided to adopt restrictive measures in 1886. The number of Chinese who entered Western Australia declined rapidly under the provisions of the Imported Labourers Registry Act 1884.[2] After the Intercolonial Conference of 1888, a new Act was passed in accordance with restrictive measures agreed upon immigration on the Conference. Then by an amendment passed in 1897, traveling to the area below latitude 27 degrees south within the colony was allowed. The numbers of Chinese in Western Australia from 1881 to 1921 were as following:[3] 

[1]  For over six decades, Australia was a destination for British criminals. In 1846 Western Australia wanted to take the convicts as cheap and subsidized workforce that might build up its infrastructure. However, the last flow of convicts from Britain to Western Australia was in 1867, given that other Australian colonies feared they might be infected by escaped convicts. See Philip Harling, “The Trouble with Convicts: From Transportation to Penal Servitude, 1840–67.” Journal of British Studies 53, no.1 (2014): 80-110. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24700957. In addition, for more information of the Chinese labourers recruited by the Western Australia, please refer to the following: James Jupp, ed., The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its people and their Origins, 2nd ed. (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 213-4. — Trans.

[2] To prevent the importation of old and sickly persons, this Act regulated the registration of certain persons who were imported into Western Australia or employed in any manner within the Territorial Dominion. See the Imported Labourers Registry Act 1884. — Trans.

[3] This chart was from Official year book 1925. P. 958

西澳直辖殖民地政府，自停止流刑犯后，会奖励劳动阶级人口，但收效殊鮓，一八七八年輸入华工五十人，一八八0年，再提議輸入五十名，及京巴利发现金矿后，恐华侨大量入境，于一八八六年採用限制法，雖然一八八四年採用勞動者登記法(Imported labourer’s Register Act)以為限制入境之手段,入境者大見減少,一八八八年殖民地全體會議所協定之限制方法成為法律，至一八九七年又制定改正法，規定在南緯二十七度以南地帶，准計華僑來往，茲将一八八一年—一九二一年旅居西澳華僑人數表列如下：

(X) Not available

(X)不詳  

Tasmania

Although at that time the number of Chinese immigrated in Tasmania was limited, the colony of Tasmania was represented at the Intercolonial Conference in 1880-81 and adopted the Queensland restrictive measure in 1878. However, in 1885 the development of tin and gold mining attracted Chinese labourers. Despite the fact that they numbered less than a thousand, outcry for protection of white labourers arose. Consequently, an Act was passed at the end of 1887 similar to those in force in New South Wales and Victoria. Below chart shows the number of Chinese in Tasmania from 1881 to 1933.[1]

[1] The number of Chinese in Tasmania between 1881 and 1921 was from official year book 1925. P. 935

最初華人移入該州者極少，一八八0——八八一年殖民地全體會議，該州曾派代表出席，并先於一八七八年採用昆士蘭州之限制法，但一八八五年因錫鑛金鑛相冨發展，華僑遂有至該地者，然為數尙不及千人，而保護白人勞動者之呼聲遂起，一八八七年乃施行與新南威爾士州、維多利亞州同樣之法律限制华人入境，兹将一八八一年至一九三三年旅居该州之华侨人数列表如下：

(X) Not available

(X) 不详

Northern Territory

In 1874, the South Australian Government recruited and sent Chinese coolies to the Northern Territory, letting them engage in topical agriculture. Yet later the discovery of goldfields brought a soaring number of Chinese. Soon afterwards, more than 4,000 Chinese labourers entered the Territory in 1887-8, constructing the railway from Darwin to Pine Creek. The considerable amount of Chinese in the Territory was met with a recommendation from the South Australia to restrict the entry of Chinese immigrants. The Government in the Northern Territory then enforced the new Act in which the restriction on Chinese in South Australia extended to the Northern Territory. The numbers of Chinese living in the Northern Territory from 1881 to 1921 are listed below.[1]

[1] This chart was from Official Year book 1925 P.935

一八七四年南澳政府曾轉送華僑苦力至北方地域，以従事熱帶農業，但發現金鑛後，華僑來者漸多，一八八七至八八年建築達爾文至賓古利克鐵路，來者更多，當時人數達四千以上，其後採納南澳之勸吿，採用一八八八年之限制法，華人遂被禁入境矣。茲將一八八一年至一九二一年旅居北澳華僑人數列表如下：

The number of Chinese has been decreasing since 1881. In 1939, there were approximately 12,000 Chinese in Australia, and the elderly accounted for three quarters of the population. The lack of young people may lead to a consistent and severe decline of Chinese immigrants in the following years.[1] 1939 also saw about 3,500 mixed-race people, most of whom were adopting Australian lifestyles and did not even speak Chinese.

[1] One of the major reasons that prevent the number of Chinese immigrants from growing lies in the great shortage of Chinese women. At the time of federation, only 474 Chinese women were recorded among the Chinese-Australian of 29,627, accounting for only 1.6% of the entire population. See John Fitzgerald, Big White Lie: Chinese Australians in White Australia. (Sydney: UNSW Press, 2007), 14. — Trans.

澳州華僑自一八八一年以來漸見減少,最近一九三九年約有一万二千餘人，其四分之三爲老人，物故後恐難有繼起者，故在此後數年間，旅澳華僑人數恐將大見減少，卽現有人数中混擊種約有三千五百人，彼等大槪已土著化，甚至不諳華語者。

Very rarely can one see a Chinese engaged in occupations other than indentured labourers. Of all the Chinese in Australia, only two or three of them became doctors or attorneys. Thomas Bakhap, the former Tasmanian Senator and a member of the Commonwealth Liberal Party, the adoptive son of a Chinese immigrant, died in 1923, and afterwards no politician ever associated with Chinese.[1]

[1] In 1913, Thomas Jerome Bakhap was elected to federal parliament as a Liberal senator representing Tasmania. The fluent Chinese he learned from his adoptive Chinese father enabled him to support and protect the Chinese workers in Australia. See “Entrepreneurs and business,” The National Museum of Australia, https://www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/harvest-of-endurance/scroll/entrepreneurs-and-business.

（一）商業 Commerce

Sydney, one of the biggest hubs of Chinese traders, had ten famous companies, including two trading giants, Wing Sang and Wing On and Co.

華僑商業多在雪梨市，在該市之商業最著名有十餘問，當以「永新」(Wing Sang)及永安(Wing On)爲最大。

Wing Sang was founded 50 years ago (1890) by a group of Chinese immigrants. On 10 August 1909, Wing Sang expanded its business scope to general merchandise and import/export business. The branches of Wing Sang were opened in China at the same time. £40,000 capital was divided into 400 shares of £100.

永新係五十年前來澳之僑民所組織,一九0九年八月十日創立經营一般商業及出入口並設分店於祖國，資本金四萬磅（分四百股，每股額面一百磅）

The founder of Wing On was an employee of Wing Sang before he ventured out on his own to establish Wing On in 1930. £50,000 capital (£1 per share) was divided into Class A shares and Class B shares, £25,000 for each class.[1] Wing On ran a business selling fruits and agricultural products.[2]

[1] Unfortunately, details about the shareholding structure of Wing Sang and Wing On are not available, so the translator is not sure whether the original description of the capital is accurate.

[2] Wing On achieved a big success in incorporating Christian ethics into its operations. The service motto was “Quality, reasonable price, satisfaction and courtesy.” The first tenet that guided the store’s philosophy was that all people who entered the doors of the store shall be equal. “There is to be no slighting of one customer and privileging of another.” Inclusive business egalitarianism existed in all aspects of company operations, which may serve as a counterpoint to the prejudice the mainstream Australian society held that the Chinese had a deeply rooted sense of hierarchy and cannot understand the Australian value of equality. See Fitzgerald, Big White Lie, 203.

「永安」係由脫離「永新」之職員所組織，一九三0年成立，资本金五萬磅（額空毎股一磅），分AB兩種股票，每種二萬五千磅）經營水菓及農產物之買賣。

The names and addresses of the important companies in Sydney are listed below:

2. Organizations

（二）團體 

There were several organizations found by overseas Chinese in Sidney, including the Chinese Chamber of Commerce, Overseas Chinese Association, Sydney Branch of the Australasian Kuo Min Tang,[1] and the Christian Churches.[2]

[1] “The history of the Chinese Nationalist Party of Australasia, or the Australian Kuo Min Tang (hereafter KMT), begins in 1910 with the formation in Melbourne of the Young China League to support Dr Sun Yat-Sen’s revolutionary aims. After the 1911 revolution it became a branch of Sun’s Kuo Min Tang party. The Australian KMT was the first modern Chinese-Australian institution without the traditional restricted membership requirements of clan, class, native-place or gender affiliation.” See Kuo Mei-fen and Brett Judith, Unlocking the History of the Australasian Kuo Min Tang 1911-2013, Kew, VIC, Australia: Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2013, 3.

[2] The Chinese Chamber of Commerce (Huashang huishe), whose predecessor was thought to be Lin Yin Tong, was established in 1903. Tong normally refers to a type of Chinese social organization. It has been used by Chinese immigrants to title various associations, such as secret societies, clan associations and kinship societies. Found in 1892, Lin Yin Tong began to demonstrate a great influence when it made efforts to mobilise and integrate with Western networks and manners, rather than merely following kinship customs, a model that the most Chinese merchants and associations adopted at that time. It’s operation was both inclusive and democratic. The NSW Chinese Chamber of Commerce kept the operating model and became a more inclusive and reform-minded association. See Fitzgerald, Big White Lie, 182. Also, see Kuo, Making Chinese Australia, 23-31.

澳州之華僑團體在雪梨有華僑總商會(Chinese Chamber of commerce)華僑協会, 國民黨支部，基督教協會等。    

Founded in 1888 as Leung Yea Tong, the Chinese Chamber of Commerce had a membership of around 700 a few years ago, while it has dwindled to 250 now (1939).[1]

[1] “Leung Yea Tong” refers to “Lin Yin Tong,” the association that was introduced above by the translator. The year mentioned here should be “1892” rather than “1888,” according to the authoritative historical works. See Fitzgerald, Big White Lie, 182. Also, see Kuo, Making Chinese Australia, 23-31. — Trans.

華僑總商會之前身，爲一八八八年所組織之兩宜堂(Leung Yea Tong)，數年前約有會員七百人，現在已減至二百五十人。

The size of the overseas Chinese organizations in Victoria was usually tiny. A Chinese Association was organized by the Chinese community in Melbourne.

維多利亞州華僑團體之範圍甚小，墨爾鉢之華僑有華僑商會之組織。

2) The Overseas Chinese Association was once under the leadership of James Chao, a famous figure in Melbourne. [1] This Association still exist today (1939).

[1]  The author referred James’s Chinese name as 趙某 (zhao mou), which means Mr. Chao. Unfortunately, his full Chinese name is no available in existing materials. — Trans.

(2) 華僑協會過去主持之著名人物为趙某,其西名爲James Chao，現該會仍继续存在。

3) Christian churches were organized by young Chinese Christians in Sydney. Chinese ministers once were employed there to propagate Christian doctrines. [1]

[1] The majority of Sydney’s Chinese commercial elite were Christians. They were encouraged to participate in wider social networks as well as issues outside business through their work with the Church. At that time, Reverend John Young Wai and his Chinese Presbyterian Church had a profound impact on Chinese community in Sydney. Rev. Wai put a great effort on caring for the Chinese immigrants who were far from home and relatives, organizing English class to bring Chinese the culture and general knowledge they needed to thrive in a predominantly Western society, and thus stablishing a high level of prestige in the Sydney Chinese community. Many people started their business under the encouragement of Wai, including the founding manager of Wing On. See Mei-fen, Making Chinese Australia, 151.  — Trans.

(3) 基督敎會爲雪梨之靑年基督教徒所組織，曾經一度聘有華藉牧師宣傳教義.

All three Chinese-language newspapers in Australia were based in Sydney.[1]

[1] Three newspapers were based in Sydney and Melbourne over the first decade of 20th century, all of them were founded by members of the Sydney urban elite. The Chinese Australian Herald, the first Chinese-language newspaper, was launched in Sydney in 1894. It was followed by the publication of the Tung Wah News in 1898, also in Sydney and continued as the Tung Wah Times. The third was Chinese Republic News 民國報 published between 1913 and 1937. In 1902 the Chinese Times was set up in Melbourne and continued as民報 from 1919 to 1922, later moved to Sydney. See Mei-fen, Making Chinese Australia,14, 38,153.  — Trans.

(1) 民報 Chinese Republic News Address: 75. Ultine Rd.

It was found by Kuo Min Tang.

(2) 公報 Chinese World’s News            Address: 18. Mary St

(3) 東華報  Tung Wah Times                   Address: 78 Campbell St

(1) 民報 Chinese Republic News Address: 75. Ultine Rd.

係國民黨所辦。

(2) 公報 Chinese World’s News            Address: 18. Mary St

(3) 東華報  Tung Wah Times                   Address: 78 Campbell St

[1]七七 in this text referred to the July 7th Incident. It is a battle between Chinese and Japanese soldiers in July 1937. This incident is considered as a trigger of full-scale hostilities with Japan in mainland China.  See James B. Crowley, “A Reconsideration of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident.” The Journal of Asian Studies 22, no. 3 (May 1963): 277–291. doi:10.2307/2050187.  —Trans.

（四）七七后对祖国之捐献 

From 7 July 1937 to June 1939, overseas Chinese in Australia donated a total of 375,000 yuan to China. Donation from New Zealand to China by overseas Chinese was 54,000 yuan.